Subject Code - Medium BA UG202GE - E B.A. FIRST YEAR GENERIC ELECTIVE - I SEMESTER - II HUMAN SOCIETY AND DEVELOPMENT "We may forgo material benefits of civilization, but we cannot forgo our right and opportunity to reap the benefits of the highest education to the fullest extent…" Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
C O U R S E T E A M Course Development Team Editor Prof. Vakulabharanam Ramakrishna Associate Editor Prof. E. Sudha Rani Writers Prof. Adapa Satyanarayana (Unit-3) Prof. E. Sudha Rani (Unit-1) Dr. Hema Subramanyam (Unit-7) Prof. Sripati Ramudu (Unit-4) Dr. Hema Subramanyam (Unit-8) Dr. S. Sudhakar Babu (Unit-5 & 6) Dr. Francis Chandrasekhar (Unit-2) Cover Design G. Venkata Swamy First Edition : 2018 © 2018, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad, Telangana State. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without the permis- sion in writing from the University. The text forms part of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open University Programme. Further information on Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open University courses may be obtained from the Director (Academic), Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open University, Road No. 46, Prof. G. Ram Reddy Marg, Jubilee Hills, Hyderabad - 500033. Web: www.braou.ac.in E-mail: info@braou.ac.in Printed on behalf of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad by the Registrar. cxvi
INTRODUCTION Charles Darwin clearly states that in the evolution process of life, Human beings are the last . Earliest traces of human being can be seen in African Continent. Man started believing that the community life is better than living aloof. He started exploring and sharing with each other. This collective living helped for social living. Human being inculcated the technical knowledge of using tools along with their evolution process. The victories of early man, his interest with Physical, Economic, Social, Psycological and language, arts and emergences of towns helped in the creation of culture and civilization. From this academic year, our university is adopting CBCS pattern, where the learners along with core subjects, should study Generic Electives as part of their curriculum. This is the first Generic Elective in second year Undergraduate Course. The human society deeply influenced by value, beliefs and historical concerns of the people. In India, social evolution passed various phases. From Stone age to ancient civilization of Harappa; from Medievalism to Modern Age; the unique struggle against British Imperialism and after acquiring Independence, adoption of largest written constitution ensuring equal rights to its citizens. The present course offers you a basic history of the social, cultural transformation of society and the human development. The course consists of two blocks. First block deals with the period of human evolution, cultural civilization, transition from medival to modern era and the era of reform and natural movement. The second block deals with the social, political, economic development in Indian society following institutional changes after independence. It also deals with the contemporary challanges in Indian society. The University hopes that this course material will help learners to get acquaint with the evolution of human society. Through political constitutional grievences, socio-economical development and the inherent challenges in society.
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CONTENTS Block-I : Indian Society and Social Systems 121 Unit-1 : Human Evolution and Civilization 123 Unit-2 : Evolution of Social Structure, Institutions and Culture 141 Unit-3 : Transition from Medieval to Modern Age 159 Unit-4 : Sociel Reforms and Indian National Movement 175 Block-II : Post Independent India and Development 195 Unit-5 : Constitutional Development 197 Unit-6 : Indian Polity and Governance 213 Unit-7 : Indian Economy and Reforms 227 Unit-8 : Contemporary Concerns and Issues 241 Syllabus 253 Model Examination Question Paper 254 Glossary 256
BLOCK-I: INDIAN SOCIETY AND SOCIAL SYSTEMS Creativity of human being as a subject that integrates diverse studies of society, economy, polity, environment. Human beings are endowned with the ability to live with creativity and improve the conditions. Right from as nomads and earliest tool makers seeking out their livelihood to the modern times is a fascinating journey. The present block discusses at length of the Evolution of Human Society, civilization, social structures and a Transition from Medivial to Modern age. It also deals with various phases of Social Reforms and Nationam Movement. The process consists of following units; Unit-1: Human Evolution and Civilization. Unit-2: Evolution of Social Structures, Institutions and Cultures. Unit-3: Transition from Medieval to Modern Age. Unit-4: Sociel Reforms and Indian National Movement. 121
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UNIT-1: HUMAN EVOLUTION AND CIVILIZATION Contents 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Human being at the Centre of Social Processes 1.2.1 Tool Making 1.2.2 Social Setting 1.3 Knowledge and Society 1.4 Change, Development and Growth 1.4.1 Social Change 1.4.2 Development 1.4.3 Growth 1.5 Social Norms 1.5.1 Simple to Complex Society 1.5.2 Class Divisions 1.6 Process of Human Settlement 1.7 Nomadic ad River Valley Civilizations 1.7.1 Factors for the Growth of Early Civilizations 1.7.2 River Valley Civilizations 1.7.2.1 Mesopotamian - Sumerian Civilization 1.7.2.2 Egypt Civilization 1.7.2.3 Harappan Civilization 1.8 Summary 1.9 Model Answers to Check Your Progress 1.10 Model Examination Questions 1.11 Further Readings 1.0 OBJECTIVES After studying this Unit you should be able to explain: l Explain how human beings are at the centre of all social processes. l Examine social roots of human beings and various forms of prejudices. l Examine the process of human settlements. l Analyse the growth of nomadic and River Valley Civilizations. 123
1.1 INTRODUCTION What do the various organised branches of knowledge, be it sociology, be it social anthropology or any other discipline of social sciences, have in common? It is the fact that they all have to, at some point or the other, focus on the human beings as their central theme. It is precisely this centrality of human being as a subject that integrates various diverse studies of society, economy, polity or nature and environment, together. Although all these disciplines follow different approaches and methodologies, they share with each other the same concern i.e. human beings. 1.2 HUMAN BEING AT THE CENTRE OF SOCIAL PROCESSES Social processes are the ways in which individuals and groups interact, adjust and readjust and establish relationships and pattern of behaviour which are again modified through social interactions. What is it that constitutes and sustains society? Who has put society on the path of development? Who produces food? Who has given birth to political institutions? Is not the answer that human being in each of these cases? That is the reason why the human being is more and more acknowledged as the principal subject of social and scientific investigations. No doubt there was a time when scientists denied human beings their place in social scientific endeavours. During that time the scientists did not want to look at themselves. They were more willing to judge others. Today the increasing concern of the scientist (natural or social) is to study human beings. In spite of the increasing specialisation in both natural as well as social sciences, human beings, due to the central position occupied by them, are the subjects of all studies; For example, even a Zoologist who studies animals, compares their body structure. etc. with that of human beings; a Botanist, who studies plants does so also in relation to their utility for human beings. Fig 1.1 Evolution of Human Being 1.2.1 Tool making Human beings are located at the epicentre of all social processes. Since they are endowed with the ability to live with creativity they constantly reflect and improve upon the conditions that surround them. For example a bird makes a nest but the shape and make of the nest does not change. It has remained the same for ages. Similarly a lion has had a cave as his house for long. But human beings who started taking shelter in trees, bushes and caves gradually moved to 124
Fig 1.2 Tools of Paleolithic Age Fig 1.3 Tools of Neolithic Age making huts, small houses then to bungalows and now multi storied towers. This has been possible due to the creative urge and capability in human beings. Human beings are not merely the passive bearers of culture, tradition and social structure! They not only create but are also the creative agents of values, meanings, aspirations etc. It is this creativity that has led to the formation of cultures and on the other hand it is culture which provides objective conditions to human beings for expressing their creativity. As Malinowski observed: "Man has freedom precisely because he has culture" and culture is an initial instalment in freedom". Evolution of early human beings suggests that anatomical, physiological, and behavioral traits long held to define our genus did not arise in a single integrated package, but instead emerged over about a million years in three distinct lineages, with some traits evolving earlier and some later. In any case, it has become clear with more evidence that the origin of our genus 125
remains murky, and that human beings may have been the earliest toolmaker for eking out their livelihood. They have constructed a historical progression in the development of human beings manual skill on the basis of unfinished and finished tools. You would like to know whatr are the different stages of development particularly on the basis of the tool making skills of human beings. The archaeologists have arranged human history into the following periods. The Stone ages (old and new), the Bronze age and the Iron age. However, all these stages did not evolve simultaneously in all parts of the world. If one region witnessed the stone age in another region bronze age had started and in the third region iron had come. Old Stone Age or the Palaeolithic period begins somewhere between 5,00,000 and 2,50,000 years ago. In the Old Stone Age human beings lived entirely on hunting, fishing and gathering food. The tools they fashioned from stone for this purpose were rudimentary in character. These tools only enabled them to live off nature and not to invest in it. Their requirements were met through trapping, hunting, plucking or digging. They had no control over nature. Rather they were dependent on it. The new Stone Age or the Neolithic period began some 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. In this Age human beings were able to increase, and thus control to some extent, the supply of food. They did this by cultivating cereals and breedings. It is during this period that pottery, the technique of spinning wool, fax and cotton into threads come into use. Finally, fashioned stone axes sharpened by grinding also made their appearance at this time. This period also provides us with evidence for the existence of granaries or stone houses which imply that food was often produced in excess of current requirements. The next revolution in tool maing came with the Bronze Age about 5,000 years ago, that is around 3000 B.C. This period supported an urban population, skilled craftsmen, traders, priests, writers and clerks. Writing emerged in history around this time. As Copper and bronzes were the principal metals used for making tools and weapons, this period is described as the Bronze Age. To secure bronze tools, community encouraged specialists like miners, smelters and smiths. After all, to make a bronze axe one must know more science than one needed in the Stone Ages. By 3000 B.C. not only was the technique of mixing copper and tin to make bronze known as India. Mesopotamia and Greece, but the wheel also had been discovered. The application of the wheel (with copper nails) revolutionised transportation and two-wheeled and four-wheeled carts were being commonly used by this time for a variety of purposes. By this time wind too was being used as a source of energy primarily to aid water transportation. Iron age commenced at around 1200 B.C. Unlike copper and tin which are quite rare and hence expensive, iron is one of the commonest elements found in the earth’s crust. In the beginning it was a rare metal. Only wrought iron (Shaped by hammering) was produced. In this period of the Bronze Age technology, large empires had emerged in Greece, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia and Egypt etc. The invention of iron tools and weapons by the ‘barbarians’ of Eurasia posed a major threat to these empires. Iron was used in India around 1000 B.C. and excavations show that iron weapons such as arrow heads, spear heads etc., were used commonly in Western Uttar Pradesh from about 800 B.C. In the words of Gorden Childe “Cheap Iron democratised agriculture and Industry and warfare tools”. 126
1.2.2 Social Setting Social Sciences should aim first at understanding the manifold aspects of human beings in their Social setting. To arrive at the level of a meaningful Social Science, the social scientist should look at the subjects with a sense of empathy This is the true meaning of reflection it contributes to the social scientist's ability to observe and understand the pressures and constraints, the freedom and choices that human beings are laced with in society. It provides him the perspective through which he can see an observed behaviour as an aspect of other possible behaviours. For instance it is a widely accepted view that rural people are fatalistic by nature. Through scientific techniques one can possibly substantiate this belief. It is quite likely if a question such as, Why have your crops been poor this year?" is put to the villager he might say: "It is all fate"."But if the scientist understands that the villager has the same rationality, humility and reflective ability as he himself possesses he will be careful in interpreting this reply. He will explore the context in which the statement has been made. He will match it against the villager's other sets of beliefs and actions in other spheres of life. For example his ready acceptance of modern technology in agriculture. He may then come to realise that the research conclusion is still far from definitive. Under what conditions can one say with certainty that a given group of people are fatalistic? If the social scientists were to reflect on the operation of the concept of fatalism after appreciating the intellectual apparatus and wider social and cultural contexts of their Subject the earlier conclusion so hastily arrived at will he revised. 1.3 KNOWLEDGE AND SOCIETY Let us now apply what we have studied so far to analyse the relationship between knowledge and society. Some social scientists have suggested that-human beings from the earliest times have used nature and natural model to understand and classify their social world. Unlike the social world there is a certain stability about nature. Trees have branches, crows are black, cows give milk, the beetle behaves like a beetle, the vultures scavenge like a vulture, a stone is generally unmoved, and so on. The social world has to be put into order, and what better way is there to do this than by borrowing the stability of the natural world to act as a model for the social universe. Hence, the tendency to impute natural differences where there exist only social and cultural ones. This understanding can be coupled with a point of view which first emerged in philosophy and was later introduced into anthropology. According to this view human beings can never leave the world untheorised. Before Copernicus it was commonly believed that the sun moved around the earth. Some others held to the myth that Atlas was tricked into holding the world up on his shoulders. Even today, there might be some people who believe that the earth is delicately balanced on the horns of a mighty bull, and every time the bull hiccups we have earthquakes. There is no natural phenomenon. no universal mystery, whose theorising or solution has been kept on hold simply because of the absence of sufficient, authentic: or "Scientific" evidence. Little wonder then that mankind should be classified and re-classified, and the universe should be theorised repeatedly. If we proceed from this understanding then we cannot but humble ourselves with the realisation that some of the categories of social science regarding other human beings have their basis in a crude natural model, and that sortie of our contemporary scientific theories may well 127
seem bizarre or even funny to future scientists. That is why whenever a social scientist sits on judgement on the knowledge systems, whether they are beliefs, values, theories, actions or prescriptions, he should always remember to look to himself and only then will he know the human context with which knowledge is produced. For it is this context which eventually ensures the acceptance or rejection of certain kinds of knowledge. What guarantee is there that our current notions of science will not appear childish in our children's life time? While accepting this, one should not, however, conclude that knowledge moves in definitive blocks without active human intervention. It is human agency which in small microscopic doses creates the ambience conductive to scientific development and change. The invention of the microscope, the discovery that blood circulates, the early toyings with antiseptics, all of this, and many other discoveries gave mankind greater potential. Social structure imposes a certain limit on the range of options that human beings can exercise but they cannot foreclose many others. As a matter of fact, the only reason why it is possible for one to be different from his brother and yet be member of the same family is because of this duality. We are constrained and yet are significantly free. It is also how received knowledge undergoes scrutiny from time to time. That human beings can produce knowledge is determined by two premises. I) to make knowledge is to disturb previous knowledge and II) to make knowledge is impossible if man does not have the capacity for freedom of thought. Religious theocracies and dictatorships have tried unsuccessfully to muzzle this freedom and to muzzle this mistaken belief that mankind had arrived at its final destination. It is the ceaseless restlessness of man that causes empire to fall, regimes to crumble, and grand theories to be replaced. So nothing is absolute in this universe. 1.4 CHANGE, DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH During the process of evolution, the social structure undergoes many changes. These changes are related to types of work, nature of social organisation, values, beliefs and a number of human institutions. But social change unlike biological evolution can also be reversible as a process. For example a village may, in course of development, evolve to become a city or town. But if advantages of economy or of location are lost, the city can once again suffer decline and become a small village. This is what we would call a reversible process. However, biological evolution from one stage to a higher one is an irreversible process. 1.4.1 Social Change Social change is a process through which social organisations, social relationships and forms of values and beliefs of people in societies are altered. This happens either as a result of internal changes in societies, such as pressure of population, changes in technology, etc, or as a result of external pressures. These may include contact with other societies through war and trade, etc. Social change is closely related to time scale. Here one can refer to small scale changes as the gradual development of a leadership role in a small group, such as a club or a factory. There can be short term changes as in the employment rates. There could also be long term changes such as in occupational structures. There are also cyclical changes as we see in the cultural life of a society. A fashion or life style which declines, revives again after a short period of time. 128
According to some sociologists, social change refers to the unfolding of man's social arrangements through time. Hence the analysts of social change should focus their attention on the variations in time of one or more of the social forms, population attributes, and patterns of interaction among members of society. The changes in the cultural pattern, which include values, beliefs. knowledge and world view also form a part of the process of social change. 1.4.2 Development Development is a special form of social change. It implies changes in a direction treated as desirable by the members of society. LT. Hobhouse, in his work, Social Development (1924) proposed a four-fold criteria of development, such as increase in scale, efficiency, mutuality and freedom. As you will notice each of these criteria refer to a position or state of affairs in society which enhances its desirable features. In contemporary times, term 'development' has been used firstly, to draw a distinction between the highly industrialised developed societies, and the societies, which are predominantly rural and agricultural and have relatively low levels of income, i.e. the developing societies. Secondly it refers to the process by which the developing societies are now becoming industrialised. This notion of development has two important features: i) First, it has little to do with any general theory of evolution but refers to a particular kind of change observable at the present time. ii) Another characteristic is that it refers pre-eminently to economic changes which can be identified and measured with some precision. Development, therefore, is a strategy of social change in a direction which, as mentioned earlier, is considered desirable by the members of a society. This may differ from one society to another depending on the socio cultural background and political and geographical situation, but in all societies, the general connotation is the same. It implies growth in education, agriculture, industry, etc., simultaneously. The objectives of development are formulated in terms of specific social and economic policies. It reflects a preferred direction of social change. Another term you will come across in the context is 'modernisation' which has a similar connotation, but is different from development in the sense that it is used in contrast to 'tradition'. Development thus, refers to a specific process of the concept of social change. Development as a concept assumed prominence due to the rise of the welfare role of the state- It was recognised that societies must plan and organise their processes of social change so that the welfare of the people may be enhanced. For example, the development objectives in lndia have been defined as those of modernisation, economic growth, self-sufficiency and equality: The Five Year Plans in India have been formulating sets of social, economic and physical targets for introducing changes in society through fiscal, industrial and agrarian policies of change. Social change, comprises both planned and unplanned, expected and unexpected processes of transformation in society. It may even include social upheavals, unrests or even warfare. But such changes do not come within the domain of the concept of development. Development refers to a certain planned direction to social change. Here the objectives are clearly spelt out. 129
1.4.3 Growth The concept of growth refers to a certain form and pattern of social change. From the .point of view of economics, growth means, a certain rate of social and economic investment of resources in the development process of society so that a desirable quantum or rate of output or resultant production must be sustained. In this context one refers to the rate of growth such as in population or in economic investments which can be measured in quantitative terms. As such, growth a concept is a part of the process of development. Without growth there can be no development. 1.5 SOCIAL NORMS Differentiation is the process by which the rudimentary characters in a system undergo changes in forms. It gives rise to new and more complex types of life forms or social institutions. As such, it is a biological as well as a social process. This process takes place in society due to a number of reasons such as increases in population, food and other resources, inventions of new technology, etc. These changes replace older modes of production and occupation. New institutions and social organisations also emerge. Thus, social differentiation is an evolutionary process of change in society. 1.5.1 Simple to Complex Society Let us now see from a general perspective, how human beings and their social institutions have evolved from simple to complex forms. From forest wandering, food gathering primitive societies, to village - dwelling agriculture based societies, to finally highly developed industrialised modern societies living in the metropolitan cities today. This social evolution has occurred very slowly over a long period of time. Studies in pre history and archaeology, to 'which you have been introduced, show very clearly how human beings and their society evolved. Evolution-of new tools and technology complained evolution of social institutions. During the early Stone-Age or Palaeolithic period as you have studied, human beings used pebble tools in the beginning, then started using bi-faced stone-tools made by chipping. They discovered fire and its uses and by the end of this period started building shelters for themselves. They lived by hunting and food gathering but the notions of property, barter or exchange of commodities had also taken root in its nascent form in this period. Culturally also, the early Stone Age human beings had started burying their dead, and even made offerings to them. They practised magic, and developed beliefs which ultimately led to the emergence of religions. They also learnt to live an organised life in small groups and bands. Some division of labour between sexes and age groups, as well as specialisation of skills had emerged. This period was followed by the Middle Stone Age or Mesolithic age. In this period human beings faced severe climatic changes which they met by changing their ways of life. The emergence of new forests in Europe after the end of glaciation, expansion of semi-desert terrain in Asia and Africa, led them to migrate and evolve new technologies to meet new challenges. What we see in this evolution process is a movement from simple to complex social forms, institutions etc. 130
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. What Malinoski observed. ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2. L.T. Hobhouse work is ...................... .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 1.5.2 Class Divisions In the process of development, the most significant contribution was the discovery of metal and its uses, Prof. V. Gordon Childe, an eminent scholar of pre-history wrote in his famous work Man Makes Himself, that: the stone axe ..... is the home made product that could be fashioned and used by nobody in a self contained group of hunters or peasants. It implies neither specialisation of labour not trade beyond the group. The bronze axe which replaces it is not only a superior Implement. It also pre supposes a more complex economic and social structure The casing of bronze is too difficult a process to be learned out by anyone in the intervals of growing or catching his food or minding her babies. It is a specialists job, and these specialists must rely for such primary necessities as food upon a surplus produced b) other specialists. In the Bronze Age, metal was used in a limited sense for making weapons, tools and ornaments. However, the discovery of iron and its smelting process as you have read earlier led to another revolutionary change in the history of human beings. This was a tough metal and the tools (like the plough) made out of it increasingly contributed in the expansion of agriculture. Human beings also developed more efficient techniques of irrigation like the storing of water, etc. Gradually more food surplus was generated. The invention of the Wheel had already speeded up travel and trade. Now it is confirmed that most of the Bronze Age civilisations had trade contacts with each other. The use of coins as money did away with the barter system. Weights and measurements were introduced in the Bronze Age itself. The human society was on the path of overall progress. Along with these changes in society human relations were also changing. With the increasing force class distinctions also emerged. There was a class of owners and masters of the means of production. On the other side were the producers and labourers who served the masters 131
1.6 PROCESS OF HUMAN SETTLEMENT We have already introduced you to some of the key factors such as mode of production technology and geographical conditions, etc. that contributed to the processes of social change, evolution and human settlement. In this section we shall further discuss some other related aspects which played a crucial role in the process of human settlement: i) Women played a crucial role in human settlement. The students of pre-history agree that women were primarily responsible for the cultivation of plants, fruits and vegetables. They tilled the soil, cultivated plants and reared animals for purposes of food production. This process must have emerged along With the division of labour based on sex. It IS assumed that these tasks were performed by women when men went out hunting. ii) The development of social institutions like the family, clan, tribe, etc. also helped the human beings in settling down. This led to the emergence of small villages and hamlets. The choice of these settlements was, of course, determined by geographical endowment of the land, water resources and climatic conditions. iii) Due to the need for regular supply of: water, rivers played an important role. It is therefore not surprising that river valleys were the favourite places where early settlements of human beings emerged. All the great civilisations of the ancient world flourished along the river banks. iv) Agriculture, as we have already seen, played a vital role in human settlement. v) The division of labour, which must have emerged out of sexual differentiation, gradually extended to cover specialised groups of people working in a specific craft. In India occupational division of labour became hereditary and took the form of caste system which passed through various stages. 1.7 NOMADIC AND RIVER VALLEY CIVILISATION 1.7.1 Fators for Growth of Early Civilisation Let us now examine the factors that led to the growth of the early civilisations. The first civilisations did not emerge in those regions where the first farming began first. Agriculture cannot be assumed to be the only 'cause' of civilisation. Also, many early and late agricultural societies in the world did not develop into civilisations. Civilisation represents a stage in history when several tribal communities are united into a political and economic order, i.e. when political and economic relationship cut across tribal boundaries, Such processes come from a ruler at the centre, "Those officers carry out his orders which all are obliged to obey. This is very different from the structuring, of community life around kin relationships. Here we are discussing the various theories about the origin of the ruler or king as a political institution. Suffice to say is that the political actions of the ruler (king) at the centre are effective because they are backed by force of social acceptance. People would not obey a command to join the army or build a palace for the king or surrender rent from their harvest to the King's officers unless they agreed to it or they had no choice. Rulers thus have the power to organize trade, raise armies, or sponsor craft production. ' 132
This gives rise to much movement of people and goods through the ruler's territory. In the civilisations of the Nile, Euphrates and Indus, cities (urban centres) emerged. In urban centres many people were engaged in non-food-producing occupations like administration, craft or scribal work, trade, or at professional priests. Now seal cutters or scribes did not produce food but they did consume it. So there had to be a regular supply of food which was met by the village. Thus we find that civilisations cannot develop unless there is (a) a reliable agricultural base and (b) easy transportation provided by nature. A quick glance at maps will show you that the three civilisations we will study are located in relatively flat valleys crossed by large river systems. Water transport was in ancient times much cheaper than land transport. This was because boats sailed with the energy of winds or river currents and there were no animals to feed. The wheel also reduced the energy required from animals for transportation. In all three areas of our study the river boat and the wheeled cart were in use long before civilisation emerged. In all the three civilisations tools were made of stone, copper and bronze. For ornaments and aft work, however, a variety of stones, shells, silver and gold were used. Metal and previous stones were not found within the Nile, Euphrates or Indus valleys, and could only be procured through trade, the sending of expeditions, or by settling colonies near their resources. All three of the river valleys were fertile and large; all were arid regions fed by rivers which draw their waters from high rainfall and mountain regions at their source, giving permanent water and fertile silt to their valleys. In all three civilisations wheat and barely were the staple crops and animal wealth came from cattle, sheep and goat. 1.7.2 River Valley Civilisation Of all the three rivers, it is the Nile. (the longest river in the world) which is the most reliable and the easiest to tame. The Nile enters Egypt at Aswan and then flows through a narrow valley flanked by high desert on east and west. Near Cairo it forms a wide delta, where much cultivable land is available, and near the apex of the delta was the most densely inhabited region of ancient Egypt. Mesopotamia is fed by two large rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates. The settlements of the Sumerian civilisation were situated Fig 1.4 Mohenjodaro Script 3500-3000 BC along the Euphrates, as the Tigris is a swifter and suddenly branches out, which in turn bifurcate further. Mesopotamia much labour went into canal digging and cleaning canals of their mud deposits. Like the Nile the Indus also floods before the ploughing season, usually in August. But the Indus is not a manageable river. It carries almost twice the value of water compared to the Nile and flows much more swiftly. Though, therefore, does not produce a sheet flood-its flood waters escape in large overflow rivers like the Eastern Nara and the Western Nara, these in turn (like 133
the Indus) overflow and change course frequently. The wide Indus valley thus receives its pre- plough water and fertilization in a haphazard manner, some tracts getting good water while others being left dry and this too varies in different years, Thus, the residents of the Indus valley civilisation must have faced the greatest challenge for agricultural production. Mesopotamian history is extremely rich in sources and Mesopotamia takes a high place in world history because it saw the earliest cities and states, had the most prosperous agricultural economy of ancient times, and left a strong legacy to the world in literature, mathematics and astronomy. The Mesopotamians wrote on wet mud tablets by pressing the wodge shaped end of a stylus (of reed or wood) on to the surface. When written, the tablet was dried or baked. Baked mud, as you know, can survive burial in the soil for centuries unlike paper, bark or wooden boards, which are organic materials and therefore perishable. The study of the writings on these tablets tell us a lot about that period. 1.7.2.1 Mesopotamia - Sumerian Civilisation. The language used by the first city-dwellers was Sumerian, and so we call this the 'Sumerian civilisation'. Sumerian settlements began as humble villages (see the first horizontal column in the chronological chart), but by 2500 B.C. grew to the size of cities. Extensive archaeological surveys show that cities were very much larger than the contemporary cities of the Indus or of Egypt. From the accounts of agricultural work we can see that the productivity of the land was very high, probably the highest known in the ancient and medieval world. So, the output of the farmers could meet the needs of a substantial non-food- producing population living in cities. Sumerian believed they although the God lived in the heaven they owned estates on earth. The temple was literally considered as the God's house on earth. Fig 1.5 Mesopotamia 3500-3000 BC 134
Sumerian Kings were primarily the wielders of military power, but were involved in temple building and administration to legitimize their authority that is, to justify their power in the eyes of the people, and above all to gain control to temple wealth. Temples had by the Early Dynastic period accumulated much wealth and controlled a lot of land. Originally, all this wealth was public property but the Sumerian Kings had the necessary power to use the wealth as if it was their private property. Early Dynastic temple records name the king, and not the God, as owner of temple lands. Early in third millennium weather was perennial in Sumer. Although the land was immensely fertile, agriculture remained unstable. The channels of the Euphrates could suddenly change course, depriving all communities located down them of water. Canals had a short life because they silted up at a fast rate, and after some years could not be cleaned effectively. Thus communities were periodically obliged to fight for land or for access to water. The state drew its revenues from the temple and palace estate and from compulsory labour and foreign trade. At the same time several legal contracts of the period show that farmers - perhaps because they were impoverished or in distress-were selling their lands to members of royal families or the nobility. To be fair to the kings, however, we find from the contracts that they did not seize lands but paid a fair price for them, in grain, bread, fish, oil or copper. 1.7.2.2 Egyptian Civilization Archaeology gives us only limited information on ancient Egypt. Egyptian towns and villages stood within the cultivated plain of the Nile. This is a narrow plain, annually inundated. Medieval and modern settlements often overlie ancient villages in this densely populated valley. Therefore the remains of ordinary village houses or village shrines, or even important town buildings have either been washed away by floods or lie in wet soils or lie buried under later settlements. We know little about the sizes of towns, of villages, about ordinary houses and Fig 1.6 Egyptian Pyramid the life of the peasants. Egyptian Culture Fortunately, Egyptian history is not merely a list of the names and wars of the Pharaohs (the Kings). Paintings and reliefs on temple and tomb walls vividly depict scenes from everyday life: the ploughing of a field, carpenters at work, scribes writing, or a monkey biting its keeper. There are also written accounts: biographies of people inscribed on their tombs, and letters and stories on papyrus. Egyptian writing is multi-coloured, an Fig 1.7 Egyptian Script extension of drawings, and very pleasing to the eye. The pyramids are great tourist attraction of Egypt today. Pyramids are gigantic stone 135
tombs square at the base, with four triangular sides meeting at the top. They were each part of a larger complex containing a temple near the Nile, a causeway between this and the pyramid, and death chapels. The Egyptian conceived of the after - life as a mirror reflection of life on earth and the dead Pharaoh was not only sumptuously dressed but provided with food, furniture and weapons, etc. A Pharaoh was regarded as a sacral figure, formed, it was believed, by a diety. He guaranteed the cosmic order and was the high priest of every temple in the land. Much more a sacral figure than the Sumerian King, the Pharaoh nevertheless was very much the human head of state. Ritually purified at his coronation and crowned with the crowns of upper and lower Egypt, the Pharaoh led a life of lavish display. A fund was established at each pyramid complex for the continuous honouring of the dead kings. All Officers were given previleges with land holdings, provincial officers, in upper Egypt , began to assert independence. The Vth Dynasty was then obliged to create the office of the 'Governor of Upper Egypt' as a check on their independence. Weni - the officer, was a man of humble birth who climbed the political ladder under the patronage of the Vth Dynasty. Egypt acquired goods from other lands. The Sinar desert (land of the Sand dwellers) was a source of turquoise and copper. I nscriptions of Old Kingdom Pharaohs have been found near these mines. From the mountains of Lebanon Egypt acquired cedar wood, and at the port of Byblos, objects were found inscribed with the names of some Pharaohs. Meanwhile, let us not forget that the eastern desert also had minerals: shiny alabaster, copper and small deposits of gold. Let us turn our concluding thoughts to the pyramids again. Two million granite blocks, each weighing 2.5 tons and requiring eight men to lift it, went into the building of the Great Pyramid at Giza. The stone was quarried in Upper Egypt and transported 700 miles down the Nile. The whole project must have taken the labour of thousands of men working for about twenty years. The state would have had to feed all these workmen over the entire period. It has, therefore, been suggested that pyramid building exhausted the resources of the Old Kingdom. The First Intermediate period saw weak kings, invasions from Asia. bloodshed and anarchy. It was left to the middle kingdom Pharaohs to revitalize the administration. But never again was Egypt to witness the building of such colossal monuments, in such impeccable workmanship and purity of geometric line. 1.7.2.3 HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION We rely exclusively on archaeological data, for although the Harappans had a systems of writing, (with the use of signs indicating whole words), we have not yet been able to decipher the writing. Harappan inscriptions are short, usually on seals and occasionally on pots or copper sheets. Perhaps the Harappans wrote on cloth, bark or other perishable materials - We will never know. 136
Fig 1.8 Extent of Harappan Civilization Harappan rituals did not take place in specially constructed sacred buildings ( we may recall that early Hindu ritual also, until the Gupta period, involved no structural temples). And Harappan ideas about death may not have led to the creation of sumptuary tombs for kings. There were rulers of some sort. In a previous section we had talked about the complex economics of civilisations and cities. The Harappans had cities with many specialists making seals, metal tools. shell bangles and decorated beads. Well organized economic network that connected villages and cities (for example there was a standardized system of weights in use in all the Harappan area) exists in Harappa. At Mohan jo-daro, Harappa, as well as some small settlements, there was one area distinct from the rest, artificially raised, walled in, and often carrying non-residential buildings. These sections have been called 'citadels'. At Mohan-jo-daro, the Great Bath, the large granary, and pillared hall lie with the citadel. .and at Lothal there was a large storage structure in the citadel. in the Kalibangan citadel there was an elaborate ritual area. Therefore 'citadels' may have been the counterparts of the Sumerian fortified palaces, where state functions (including state rituals) were carried out. 137
Fig 1.9 Indus Valley Settlements The Harappan heartland was Saraswati river system. In the third millennium the Saraswati may have been a major tributary of the lndus. There are more settlements in Sind than in Punjab, more in Kutch Titan in Kathiawad. We also find the outlying sites in Makran, the south Gujarat coastal palin, the Upper Chenab and Sutlej rivers, Baluchistan and northern Afghanistan. The Harappans needed ports, because they had a busy trade with Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian texts refer to the boats of 'Meluhha', a black land with peacocks, as a land from which came gold, lapis lazuli and fine timber. Shankh shells which are found only in Indian Coastal waters, and Harappan seals and a weight which were used for trade, as well as stone beads decorated in a typical Harappan style, were found at various Sumerian sites dating between 2600 and 1800 BC. Some trade texts from Sumer refer to merchandise coming in and going out by sea: the exports of Sumer were mainly grain, oil and textiles. Silver was imported from Sumer. Harappan sites are fairly uniform generally with simple technology: long stone blades (made from chert stone available only in Sind), simple copper or bronze tools such as axes or fish hooks or tools for stone cutting, wheeled carts, and a very study, heavy and strong range of pottery. Harappan sites were occupied by people with a different culture. In Gujarat, some settlements continued to be occupied but there was no more foreign or internal trade, the Harappan weight system was discarded, and no one now lived in cities. The reasons for this decline remain a mystery. Did natural calamities impoverish the economy or cause depopulation? Was agriculture too undeveloped to support a trading' economy for long? Or we suggest that too much dependence on state organization contributed to it so that If the ruling class suffered a decline so also did the unban administration, trade networks and technological traditions? Scholars are still attempting to answer these questions. 138
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. The Longest River in the World is ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2. The Great Bath is located in .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 1.8 SUMMARY Social Process refers to any mutual interaction experience by an individual or group on each other in thier attempt to solve problems and to achieve their desire goals. Social process consists of repetitive forms of behavior which are commonly found in social life (Horton & Hunt, 1968). It also refers to a consistent pattern of social interaction which can be identified in the society. Social Process is a convenient term to designate a number of social processes without enumerating them, but such a usage is no more a natural science concept. Human beings are merely the passive bearers of culture, tradition and social structure. Social sciences should aim first at understanding the manifold aspects of human beings and their social setting. During the process of evolution, the social structure undergoes many changes. These changes are related to types of work, nature of social organisation, values, beliefs and a number of human institutions. Development is a special form of social change. Agriculture played a vital role in human settlement. Rivers and river valley are centres for the emergence and growth of civilization. Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, Indus Valley Civilization are very important in the world civilizations. 1.9 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Check your progress answers-I 1. Man has freedom precisely because he has culture and culture is an initial instalment in freedom. 2. Social Development (1924). Check your progress answers-II 1. Nile. 2. Mohan-jo-Daro. 139
1.10 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each. 1. Write an essay on Human evolution and growth. 2. Explain the important features of civilizations. I. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each. 1. Analyse the differentiation in social forms. 2. Discuss the process of Human Settlement. 3. Discuss the salient features of Indus Valley Civilization. 1.11 FURTHER READINGS 1. M.N. Srinivas: Social Change in Modern India, Orient Longman, 1996. 2. Raghuvamsi: Indian Society during 18th Century, Associated Publication House, 1969. 3. Richard Lancay: The Speaking Tree, Oxford University Press, 1971. 4. Luniya B.N.: Evolution of Indian Culture, Lakshmi Narain Agarwal, 1960. ***** 140
UNIT-2: EVOLUTION OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE, INSTITUTIONS AND CULTURE Contents 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Social Structure 2.3 Social Institutions 2.3.1 Caste System 2.3.1.1 Varna and Jati 2.3.1.2 Caste and Class 2.3.1.3 Evolution of Class 2.3.1.4 Caste and Politics 2.3.1.5 Caste and Economy 2.4 Cultures 2.4.1 Culture and Society 2.4.2 Characteristics of Culture 2.4.3 Types of Culture 2.4.4 Concepts of Culture 2.4.5 Culture and Mores 2.4.5.1 Meaning of Mores 2.4.5.2 Values 2.4.6 Influence of Culture 2.4.7 Sub-culture and Counter Culture 2.5 Summary 2.6 Model Answers to Check Your Progress 2.7 Model Examination Questions 2.8 Further Readings 2.0 OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you should be able to; l To understand the concepts of social structure, social institution and culture. l To explore the importance of social institutions in today's society l To understand and appreciate the importance of culture and its influence on the emerging societies. 141
2.1 INTRODUCTION In this unit, the concepts of social structure, social institutions and culture are introduced. Further, description of each of them provides understanding about the changes that are brought about in the emerging society. Social structure provides the framework for understanding how our societies have evolved over time and how they have established the patterns of relationships and thereupon communication patterns in it. As a result, social institutions have been created and established for providing varied experiences to all the members who live in them. Consequently, such ways of living have created the concept of culture and sub-cultures. The members to experience each other's cultures to learn from each other's respective cultures and subcultures which provide platforms for working together, resolving differences and accommodating with each other for harmony in the society. 2.2 SOCIAL STRUCTURE Structure refers to any recurring pattern of social behaviour; or, more specifically, to the ordered interrelationships between different elements of a social system or society. Social structure is generally agreed to be one of the most important but also most elusive concepts in social sciences (Sewell 1992). It is sometimes used rather loosely to refer to any observable pattern in social activities, and empirical researchers, for example, statistical distributions of occupations and employment for disclosing the social structure of a society. More typically, however, it is seen as designating the actual arrangement of individuals and groups into those larger entities that Durkheim saw as social facts. The term, structure originated as an application of ideas from biology, where the structure of an organism is the anatomical arrangement of its various organs. Social systems were seen as organized around 'institutional' arrangement of individuals that defined their actual relations to each other. Most expounded in structural functionalism, the institutions of a society are clusters of norms and meanings, drawn from the culture, that define the expectations that people hold about each other's behaviour. It is through these expectations that specific roles and reciprocal role relationships are defined. A social structure does not, however, consist only of such institutional connections. People act upon the institutionalized role expectations and so come into definite and recurrent relations with each other. Although there is rarely a perfect correspondence between institutionalized expectations and actual social relations, the term, 'social structure' designates this crucial combination of institutions and relations as constituting the 'anatomy' of a society. Social structure, then, comprises both 'institutional structure' and 'relational structure'. Unlike the structure of a building or an organism, a social structure is not directly visible. It is evidenced through observable movements and actions of individuals, but it cannot be reduced to these. The core institutional norms and meanings are cultural phenomena that exist only as shared ideas and representations in the minds of individuals. For this reason, socialization into a culture is central to the maintenance of a social structure. The product of human agency, social structures express the fact that what people intend should never be confused with what results. 142
Premodern thought is basically structural in character. People act through social roles that determine their action, and great stress is laid upon executing a particular role according to the norms governing it. A male feudal lord is expected to act quite differently from, say, a female servant. These structures are seen as timeless, and are usually ascribed to the creative interventions of higher divinity. With the onset of modernity - ushering in of the Industrial Revolution, emergence of modern science and critical thinking, such notions dramatically changed. People are presented as individuals who can choose which role they play and change from one role to another. Structures seemingly dissolve into agency, so that what matters is the will of individuals to alter the world in which they find themselves. The problem with this position is that not only is agency presented abstractly - that is, as outside society - but the same abstract force that enables some to be actors and condemns others to passivity. Hence the classical liberals limited their notion of the individual to men who owned property, were Protestants (in the West) and upper castes (in India), and had the correct ethnicity. Timeless structures had not disappeared - they were merely assigned to others. Embodied structures are found in the habits and skills that are inscribed in human bodies and minds that allow them to produce, reproduce, and transform institutional structures and relational structures - norms, values, interests, procedures and social interaction. The emphasis upon agency and the individual is important, but it needs to be linked dynamically and historically to the notion of structure. People became conscious actors not simply because they had changed their ideas, but because they acquired through the market the wealth that enabled them to command the services of others. They may have imagined that social structures simply affected others - women, the poor, backward castes, the residents of the colonies, and so forth. But this is an illusion. The market is itself a social structure and, as such, dictates to beneficiaries and victims alike how they are to conduct themselves. Social structures are the product of agency. Without conscious action, there would be no structures. But what makes a practice structural is that the patterning which results has implications and imposes constraints that correspond only imperfectly to the intentions of those who created them. The structural argument that people enter social relations independent of their will cannot mean that these relations are the product of automatons - creatures without intention and purpose. What it means is that the result of activities undertaken is never the same as the intention of those who undertook these activities; it is this gap between intention and consequence that creates the structural character of activity. It is not that these structures are brought about by the will of some higher power, but human activity in which intention and result hardly coincides. Being aware of this makes it possible to try and organize our activities with greater consideration of their likely consequences. It is, however, a mistake to imagine that any society, no matter how enlightened and well regulated, can extinguish the gulf between intention and result, since the fallibility of humans and the complexity of social practices make it inevitable that agency and structure will remain distinct. The structure of a society affects its rate of change in subtle and not immediately apparent ways. A society which vests great authority in the very old people as classical China did for centuries is likely to be conservative and stable. A highly centralized bureaucracy is very favourable to the promotion and diffusion of change although bureaucracy has sometimes been used in an attempt to suppress change usually with no more than temporary success. When a 143
culture is very highly integrated so that each element is rightly interwoven with all the others in a mutually interdependent system change is difficult and costly. But when the culture is less highly integrated so that work, play, family, religion and other activities are less dependent upon one another, change is easier and more frequent. A tightly structured society wherein every person's roles, duties, privileges and obligations are precisely and rigidly defined is less given to changes than a more loosely structured society wherein roles, lines of authority, privileges and obligations are more open to individual rearrangement. 2.3 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS Each change in a single social institution leads to changes in all social institutions. For example, the industrialization of society meant that there was no longer a need for large families to produce enough manual labour to run a farm. Further, new job opportunities were in close proximity to urban centres where living space was at a premium. The result is that the average family size shrunk significantly. This same shift towards industrial corporate entities also changed the way we view government involvement in the private sector, created the global economy, provided new political platforms, and even spurred new religions and new forms of religious worship like Scientology. It has also informed the way we educate our children: originally schools were set up to accommodate an agricultural calendar so that children could be home to work in the fields in summer, and even today, teaching models are largely based on preparing students for industrial jobs, despite that being an outdated need. As this example illustrates, a shift in one area, such as industrialization, means an interconnected impact across social institutions. 2.3.1 Caste System in India Here, we shall discuss the basic features of caste system and concepts such as sanskritization, westernization and the dominant caste. The word, 'caste' is of Spanish and Portuguese origin. The term, 'caste' originated from the Spanish word 'casta', meaning 'lineage' or 'race' or 'a group having hereditary quality'. It is derived from the Latin word 'Castus', which means pure. The Spaniards were the first to use it, but its Indian application is from the Portuguese, who had so applied it in the middle of the fifteenth century. The current spelling of the word is after the French word 'Caste', which appears in 1740 in the academies, and is hardly found before 1800. Before that time it was spelt as 'cast'. In the sense of race or breed of man it was used as early as 1555 AD. The Spanish word 'Casta' was applied to the mixed breed between Europeans, Indians (American) and Blacks (‘Negroes’). But 'caste' was not used in its Indian sense till the 17th century. The Indian use is the leading one now, and it has influenced all other uses. Caste can be defined as hereditary endogamous group, having a common name, common traditional occupation, common culture, relatively rigid in matters of mobility, distinctiveness of status and forming a single homogeneous community. However, in the changing situation caste has adapted too many new features like having formal organizations, becoming less rigid and having a link with politics. Thus we may list from the above the following features of caste system. 1. Hereditary in nature: It implies that caste system is based on heredity. It is based on ascribed values rather than achieved qualities. 144
2. Segmental division of society: It means Indian social stratification is largely based on caste. There are various castes having a well-developed life style of their own. The membership of a caste is determined by birth. Thus caste is hereditary in nature. 3. Hierarchy: It indicates various castes according to their purity and impurity of occupations are ranked from higher to lower positions. It is like a ladder where pure caste is ranked on the top and impure is ranked at the bottom. For example the occupation of Brahmin is that of performing rituals and teaching. It is considered to be the purest occupation; hence they are placed at the top of the hierarchy. On the other hand sweeper, whose occupation is cleaning and scavenging, is placed at the bottom the bottom of the hierarchy because of impure occupation. 4. Restrictions on food, drink and smoking: Usually different castes do not exchange food and drink, and do not share smoking of hukka among them. For instance, Brahmins do not take food from any other caste. For example in Uttar Pradesh, among Kanyakubj Brahmins, there are many sub-divisions. Each sub-division does not take food from other sub-division. There are two types of food: 'pucca" (food prepared in ghee like puri, kachodi and pulao) and ‘kuchcha’ (food prepared in water like rice, pulses and vegetable curries). Some castes exchange only pucca food among themselves. Invariably, the high caste does not take anything from the low caste. The same principle is applied to smoking. 5. Endogamy: It indicates members of the caste have to marry within their own caste only. Inter-caste marriages are prohibited. However, among educated people, particularly in the urban areas, inter-caste marriages are gradually increasing. 6. Purity and pollution: It is one of the important features of the caste system. Purity and pollution are judged in terms of deeds, occupation, language, dress patterns, as well as food habits. For example liquor consumption, consuming non- vegetarian food, eating left-over food of the high castes, working in occupations like leather craft, lifting dead animals, sweeping and carrying garbage etc. are supposed to be impure. However, in recent times some high caste people are doing all the above jobs, like working in a shoe-shop, shoe-factory, cutting hair in a beauty parlour etc. 7. Occupational association: Each caste has a specific occupation and cannot change the occupation. For instance, Brahmins do priesthood and teaching, Kayasthas maintain revenue records and writing. Baniyas are engaged in business and Chamars are engaged in leatherwork, etc. With new job opportunities available due to industrialization and urbanization some people have shifted from their traditional occupation. However, in rural areas traditional occupations are still followed. Such cases are also found in urban areas like a barber has a hair- cutting saloon where he cuts hair in the morning and evening simultaneously works as peon in some office. 8. Social and religious disabilities and privileges of a few sections: The lower caste is debarred from doing many things like they are not permitted to enter the temple, do not use literary language and cannot use gold ornaments or umbrella etc. However, things have changed considerably, these restrictions are hardly found today. 9. Distinction in custom, dress and speech: Each caste has distinct style of life, i.e. having its customs, dress patterns and speech. The high caste use pure language (sometimes use literary words), whereas, the low caste use colloquial language. 145
10. Conflict resolving mechanisms: The castes having their own conflict resolving mechanisms such as Caste Panchayats at the village and inter-village levels. 2.3.1.1 Varna and Jati As mentioned earlier there are four Varnas. The first mention of Varna is found in Rig- Veda, i.e. in the vedic era around 1500 BC. Varna means colour. Initially there were no untouchables. The Varna system was relatively not rigid during the Vedic era (1500BC- 1000BC). During the later Vedic era, i.e. around 1000BC there has been a mention of "Asat Shudra" (untouchable community). Thus untouchability started around 1000BC. Around 2nd century BC to 1st century AD, because of diversified occupations, several occupational groups emergerd and came to be known by different Jatis. Thus Varna Vyavastha is the textual model or book view of Indian social system, i.e. it is found today only in texts. Whereas, Jati is the contextual view or field view of Indian social system. We find Jatis in reality today and not Varnas. There are only four Varnas whereas, there are about 4000 Jatis. In each region about 200 jatis are found. The Varna had a Pan- Indic hierarchy, i.e. Brahmins are on the top, Kshtriyas are at the second position, Vaishyas are at the third position and Shudras are found in the bottom of the hierarchy. The hierarchy was uniform throughout India but in Jati a uniform hierarchy throughout India is not found. In the changing situation, in some areas Brahmins are on the top, in some other areas Thakurs (Rajput) are at the top. Today even the Dalits are found on the top in some areas. Thus secular criteria (economic and political) are found in the Jati system. On the other hand in Varna vyavastha ritual criteria (religious) is found. In Varna vyavastha initially untouchables are not found. They are placed outside the Varna vyavastha, whereas, in the Jati vyavastha untouchables are an integral part of the system. In Varna vyavastha one can change one's status with improved socio- economic condition. Thus, one should not take Varna and Jati synonymously. 2.3.1.2 Caste and Class While a caste is hereditary, a class is non-hereditary in nature. A class system allows both exogamy and endogamy, permits mobility either up or down the system, and allows an individual to remain in the status to which he was born. Thus a class is primarily based on socio-economic criteria. There are three major classes found: Upper, Middle, and Lower. Each class is divided into two sub-divisions. They are upper-upper and lower-upper; upper-middle and lower-middle; and upper-lower and lower-lower. A class is more open than the caste in the sense that mobility is allowed in the class system. It is not allowed that openly in the caste system. Further, caste system is based on ritual criterion whereas; class is based on secular criterion. Rituals criterion means it is based on religious myths, secular means non-religious criteria like economic, political and social criterion. However, in changing circumstances caste is also adapting to secular criteria. Consciousness is found in the class but not necessarily in the caste. However, today castes are also changing into classes in urban areas particularly in terms of economic criterion. 2.3.1.3 Evolution of Caste System Changes in the caste system have been found in the last two centuries in general and in past 50 years in particular. Several processes like sanskritisation, westernization, modernization, dominant caste, industrialization, urbanization and democratic decentrialisation have made consequent changes in the caste system. They are as follows: 146
1. Sanskritisation: It is a process by which any low caste could adapt to the behavior pattern, style of life, and culture of high caste and claim membership in that high caste. But they have to leave their unclean occupation and other impure habits like meat eating and taking liquor, etc. The untouchables were not allowed to sanskritize their status. Thus only middle castes could sanskritize themselves. For sanskritization, a caste must have three conditions: (a) it should have a touchable status, (b) it should have better economic condition, (c)it should make a claim to membership into a high caste, by propagating some story or myth. It is a group process and not an individual process. It is a lengthy process and not an overnight process. It does not lead to any structural change, only leads to positionl change. It means a particular low caste changes its position into a high caste in a particular area whereas the caste structure does not change. Through this process a few lower castes in different parts of country have changed their status into higher castes. 2. Westernisation: It indicates adapting to western style of living, language, dress pattern, and behavioural pattern. In India largely the British influence has been found. The features of westernization are: (a) rational outlook (scientific and goal oriented outlook), (b) interest in material progress, (c) reliance on modern communication process and mass media, (d) English medium education, (e) high social mobility, etc. The higher castes were first to westernization themselves. Later on, the lower castes also adapted to this process. It has largely influenced the rigidity of caste system and changed it into a flexible system, particularly in the urban areas. 3. Modernisation: It is a process which primarily relies on scientific outlook; rational attitudes, high social mobility, mass mobilization, empathy, belief in liberty, equality and fraternity; high level of motivation to do everything with perfection; specialization and super-specialization in work; active participation; and dealing with complex organizations. It also requires changes in institutional, structural, attitudinal, and organizational aspects at then social, cultural and personal level. This has affected greatly the caste system in the sense that it has become more flexible. In urban areas castes are gradually becoming classes. In India we find an emerging middle class with a rational outlook and goal orientation. Modernisation is a broader concept than westernization. Any culture cans modenise itself without adapting to western values. In our case we can modernize ourselves not by abandoning the tradition totally but by integrating the rational aspects of the tradition and suitable aspects of modernity. Our caste system has adapted suitably to the modern practices, i.e. educating people, forming formal organizations and making people conscious about their existence. 4. Dominant Caste: In the 20th century, the phenomena of dominant caste have emerged. It means some caste becomes economically and politically dominant virtually rules over other castes in the region. A caste can become dominant by having the features like: (a) large land holding in the area (good economic position), (b) politically dominant (becoming a vote bank), (c) having a large population, (d) high ritual status, (e) English medium education, (f) having a tradition in agriculture (not tillers but landlords), and (g) having a tradition of violence (for dominance muscle power is essential). However today it is not limited to the upper castes only but has been found among the lower castes also. 5. Industrialisation and Urbanization: Both these processes have affected the caste system. With the growth of industrial towns and cities, migration to these areas has gone up. In these areas following strict caste rules are not possible. There are public places like parks, restaurants, canteens, hotels, offices and communication systems like buses and trains etc. where inter-dinning and sharing places are essential. Hence, a flexible approach has been adapted. 147
6. Democratic Decentralization: Through the introduction of Panchayati Raj, local self- governments have been created in the villages. In the Panchayat reservation has been made for the lower castes. This has given an opportunity for the lower castes to empower themselves. 2.3.1.4 Caste and Politics It is not a new phenomenon since politics is a part of life always. During the Varna vyavastha, Brahmanical supremacy was an example of politics. Today it is said that castes have a close link with politics because castes have become vote banks, castes have become politically aware, there have been identification of castes with political parties and every caste has its own association. In fact, the link between caste and politics has led to an empowerment among the lower castes. These castes never had any opportunities to express themselves. Today they ventilate their feelings through elections and power lobby. Dalit politics is one such example, where the Dalits are trying to assert their identities and have become successful in capturing power in various States. However, the negative aspects of this link have been found in functionalism, i.e. the upper castes always want to maintain their status quo. They are not able to accept the changing dominant position of the lower castes. This has led to frequent conflicts between upper castes and lower castes in several regions of the country. However, this is only a transitional phase. Better education, mass awareness campaign and good employment opportunities would ensure smooth passage towards a progressive society. 2.3.1.5 Caste and Economy Traditionally, it was said that caste system has been functional for the society particularly in the economic sense. It is nothing but the jajmani system. It is a system of traditional occupation for the lower castes, particularly the service caste. The service caste is known as Kamin and they used to provide service to the higher castes known as Jajmans. The Kamins provided specialized skills and services to the Jajamans and in return they used to get rewards in kind (food grains). The relationship between Jajamans and Kamins used to be a permanent and hereditary relationship i.e. after the death of the Jajamn, his son used to be a Jajman and the same principal applied to the Kamins. Thus, it was a functional relationship in village India. However, due to introduction of market economy and land reforms the Jajamani system gradually is being eroded. In this manner, caste system has undergone many changes due to the above processes and it has adapted to the new socio-economic condition. In urban areas, today people do not adhere to caste norms. The only aspect where caste comes is that during marriage they still become endogamous. However, as mentioned earlier, some people have adopted to inter-caste marriage and inter-religious marriages. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. The World Caste originated from ........... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 148
2. How many Varnas are there in India. .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2.4 CULTURE Culture reflects the inner workings of an individual in society. For example culture helps to define social situations so people understand how to behave based on that society's cultural norms. For example when an individual goes to a dinner party in the United States, it is customary to bring a host or hostess gift. Culture also defines values, influences personality development and influences career choices. If culture didn't define values, or what is considered right and wrong within the society, then there would be social discord and the society would fail. Society could not function without cultural norms that assist in governing behaviour and values, and culture could not exist without societal influences to create it. They must coexist in order for humans to exist in an organized manner. It is important to note that culture can, and does, change over time as societal norms change, but the members of that society govern that change so the individual members of the society have a level of control over the culture. The word culture comes from the Latin rootcolere (to inhabit, to cultivate, or to honour). Unfortunately, there is no simple answer to the question of what is culture. Culture is a complicated phenomenon to understand because it is both distinct from but clearly associated with society. Also, different definitions of culture reflect different theories or understandings, makingit difficult to pin down exact definitions of the concept. Generally, speaking,the following elements of social life are considered to be representative of human culture: "stories, beliefs, media, ideas,work so fast, religious practices, fashions, rituals, specialized knowledge, and common sense"(Griswold 2004). Yet, examples of culture donot, in themselves, present a clear understanding of the concept of culture;culture is more than the object or behaviour. Culture includes norms, values, beliefs, or expressive symbols. Roughly, norms are the way people behave in a given society, values are what they hold dear, beliefs are how they think the universe operates, and expressive symbols are representations, often representations of social norms,values and beliefs themselves (Griswold 2004). To summarize, culture encompasses objects and symbols, the meaning given to those objects and symbols, and the norms, values and beliefs that pervade social life. 2.4.1 Culture and Society The relationship between society, culture and personality is stressed by Ralph Linton: “A society is an organised group of individuals. A culture is an organised group of learned responses. The individual is living organism capable of independent thought, feeling and action, but with his independence limited and all his resources profoundly modified by contact with the society and culture in which he develops.” 149
A society cannot exist apart from culture. A society is always made of persons and their groupings. People carry and transmit culture, but they are not culture. No culture can exists except as it is embodied in a society of man; no society can operate without, cultural directives. Like matter and energy, like mind and body, they are interdependent and interacting yet express different aspects of the human situation. One must always keep in mind the interdependence and the reciprocal relationship between culture and society. Each is distinguishable concept in which the patterning and organisation of the whole is more important than any of the component parts. 2.4.2 Characteristics of Culture From various definitions, we can deduce the following characteristics: 1. Learned Behaviour: Not all behaviour is learned, but most of it is learned; combing one's hair, standing in line, telling jokes, criticising persons and going to the movie, all constitute behaviours which are learned consciously or sub-consciously. Sometimes the terms conscious learning and unconscious learning are used to distinguish the learning. For example, the ways in which a small child learns to handle a tyrannical father or a rejecting mother often affect the ways in which that child, ten or fifteen years later, handles his relationships with other people. Some behaviour is obvious. People can be seen going to football games, eating with forks, or driving automobiles. Such behaviour is called "overt" behaviour which is less visible. Such activities as planning tomorrow are work (or) feeling hatred for an enemy, are behaviours too. This sort of behaviour, which is not openly visible to other people, is called covert behaviour. Both may be, of course, learned. 2. Culture is Abstract: Culture exists in the minds or habits of the members of society. Culture is the shared ways of doing and thinking. There are degrees of visibility of cultural behaviour, ranging from the regularised activities of persons to their internal reasons for so doing. In other words, we cannot see culture as such we can only see human behaviour. This behaviour occurs in regular, patterned fashion and it is called culture. 3. Culture is a Pattern of Learned Behaviour: The definition of culture indicated that the learned behaviour of people is patterned. Each person's behaviour often depends upon some particular behaviour of someone else. The point is that, as a general rule, behaviours are somewhat integrated or organized with related behaviours of other persons. 4. Culture is the Product of Behaviour: Culture learnings are the products of behaviour. As the person behaves, there occur changes in him. He acquires the ability to swim, to feel hatred toward someone, or to sympathize with someone. They have grown out of his previous behaviours. In both ways, then, human behaviour is the result of behaviour. The experience of other people are impressed on one as he grows up, and also many of his traits and abilities have grown out of his own past behaviours. 5. Culture includes Attitudes, Values and Knowledge: There is misgiving among people who tend to regard the ideas, attitudes, and notions which they have as "their own". It is easy to 150
overestimate the uniqueness of one's own attitudes and ideas. When there is agreement with other people it is largely unnoticed, but when there is a disagreement or difference one is usually conscious of it. Your differences however, may also be cultural. For example, suppose you are a Catholic and the other person a Protestant. 6. Culture also includes Material Objects: Man's behaviour results in creating objects. Men were behaving when they made these things. To make these objects required numerous and various skills which human beings gradually built up through the ages. Man has invented something else and so on. Occasionally one encounters the view that man does not really "make" steel or a battleship. All these things first existed in a "state nature". Man merely modified their form, changed them from a state in which they were to the state in which he now uses them. The chair was first a tree which man surely did not make. But the chair is more than trees and the jet airplane is more than iron ore and so forth. 7. Culture is shared by the Members of Society: The patterns of learned behaviour and the results of behaviour are possessed not by one or a few person, but usually by a large proportion. Persons may share some part of a culture unequally. Some persons religions the all- important, predominating idea in life. To others it is less preoccupying/important, and to still others it is of marginal significance only. Sometimes the people share different aspects of culture. For example, among the Christians, there are - Catholics and Protestants, liberal or conservative, as clergymen or as laymen. The point to our discussion is not that culture or any part of it is shared identically, but that it is shared by the members of society to a sufficient extent. 8. Culture is Super-organic: Culture is sometimes called super organic. It implies that "culture" is somehow superior to "nature". The word super-organic is useful when it implies that what may be quite a different phenomenon from a cultural point of view. For example, a tree means different things to the botanist who studies it, the old woman who uses it for shade in the late summer afternoon, the farmer who picks its fruit, the motorist who collides with it and the young lovers who carve their initials in its trunk. The same physical objects and physical characteristics, in other words, may constitute a variety of quite different cultural objects and cultural characteristics. 9. Culture is Pervasive: Culture is pervasive it touches every aspect of life. The pervasiveness of culture is manifest in two ways. First, culture provides an unquestioned context within which individual action and response takes place. Not only emotional action but relational actions are governed by cultural norms. Second, culture pervades social activities and institutions. According to Ruth Benedict, "A culture, like an individual, is a more or less consistent pattern of thought and action. With each culture there come into being characteristic purposes not necessarily shared by other types of society. In obedience to these purposes, each person further consolidates its experience and in proportion to the urgency of these drives the heterogeneous items of behaviour; take more and more congruous shape". 151
10. Culture is a way of Life: Culture means simply the "way of life" of a people or their "design for living." Kluckhohn and Kelly define it in his sense," A culture is a historically derived system of explicit and implicit designs for living, which tends to be shared by all or specially designed members of a group." Explicit culture refers to similarities in word and action which can be directly observed. For example, the adolescent cultural behaviour can be generalized from regularities in dress, mannerism and conversation. Implicit culture exists in abstract forms which are not quite obvious. 11. Culture is a human Product: Culture is not a force, operating by itself and independent of the human actors. There is an unconscious tendency to defy culture, to endow it with life and treat it as a thing. Culture is a creation of society in interaction and depends for its existence upon the continuance of society. In a strict sense, therefore, culture does not 'do' anything on its own. It does not cause the individual to act in a particular way, nor does it 'make' the normal individual into a maladjusted one. Culture, in short, is a human product; it is not independently endowed with life. 12. Culture is Idealistic: Culture embodies the ideas and norms of a group. It is sum-total of the ideal patterns and norms of behaviour of a group. Culture consists of the intellectual, artistic and social ideals and institutions which the members of the society profess and to which they strive to confirm. 13. Culture is transmitted among members of Society: The cultural ways are learned by persons from persons. Many of them are "handed down" by one's elders, by parents, teachers, and others [of a somewhat older generation]. Other cultural behaviours are "handed up" to elders. Some of the transmission of culture is among contemporaries. For example, the styles of dress, political views, and the use of recent labour saving devices. One does not acquire a behaviour pattern spontaneously. He learns it. That means that someone teaches him and he learns. Much of the learning process both for the teacher and the learner is quite unconscious, unintentional, or accidental. 14. Culture is Continually Changing: There is one fundamental and inescapable attribute (special quality) of culture, the fact of unending change. Some societies at sometimes change slowly, and hence in comparison to other societies seem not to be changing at all. But they are changing, even though not obviously so. 15. Culture is Variable: Culture varies from society to society, group to group. Hence, we say culture of India or England. Further culture varies from group to group within the same society. There are subcultures within a culture. Cluster of patterns which are both related to general culture of the society and yet distinguishable from it are called subcultures. 16. Culture is an integrated system: Culture possesses an order and system. Its various parts are integrated with each other and any new element which is introduced is also integrated. 17. Language is the Chief Vehicle of Culture: Man lives not only in the present but also in the past and future. He is able to do this because he possesses language which transmits to him what was learned in the past and enables him to transmit the accumulated wisdom to the 152
next generation. A specialised language pattern serves as a common bond to the members of a particular group or subculture. Although culture is transmitted in a variety of ways, language is one of the most important vehicles for perpetuating cultural patterns. To conclude culture is everything which is socially learned and shared by the members of a society. It is culture that, in the wide focus of the world, distinguishes individual from individual, group from group and society. 2.4.3 Types of culture There are several types of culture i. Material culture ii. Dressing iii. Food iv. Buildings v. Non-material culture vi. Language vii. Family viii. Religion ix. Education i. Material culture: Material culture includes all those things that people create and give meaning to it. Material culture include lot of things, some of them are given below: ii. Dressing:Dressing is the important thing in culture. It identify the cultural society, for example, when a stranger from other country comes to Pakistan and he knows little about culture of dressing in such country, he will gradually identify the country and its people. Every country gives importance to its culture. They do not appreciate those who are not wearing their own cultural dress. Gradually the dressing importance is also disappearing from the people. There a lot of people when they go to the other cultural society, they adopt that and forget about their culture. Many people say that we are not giving so much importance to our culture in our own country. Now-a-days the culture is changing so much fast and because of this people are not giving much importance to their culture, especially the dress. iii. Food:Everything having to do with food-its cultivation, preparation, and consumption, represents a cultural act. Food passes through several changes before it is consumed. This means that food is also one of the important parts of the material culture. iv. Buildings: Building means construction. Building also plays important role in culture identity. Different cultures have different type of buildings. Some cultures have big houses while some have small. There are also some cultural people who don’t construct houses also, all life they pass in different places. Usually the cultural people from rural areas have big houses while those living in the city have small houses. The reason may be in rural areas the population is so 153
much low and the place available for the house is very cheap as compare to the city. May be of this reason this culture is raised in the rural areas. v. Non-material culture:Non-material culture consists of thoughts and behaviour that people learn as part of the culture they live in. It includes language, rules, customs, family, religion or beliefs, values, and knowledge. We will discuss some of them; vi. Language:Language is one of the most important forms of material culture, without language there is no concept of culture. Different cultures have different speaking of language. Even when the language is same between the two cultures still there will be difference in speaking and one will easily difference between them. Sometime because of cultures a large number of cultures are treated as one culture, for example in Pakistan there are a lot of cultures but still to the out countries they treat as just like one culture and is known as Pakistani culture. Even subcontinent is also treated as one culture but this in a specific occasion for example Asia is the largest subcontinent but the countries outside the Asia also says the words like Asian culture and we says the European culture or African culture. Language is the root cause of culture. Humans learn their culture through language, the parents first learned language to the kids after that they gradually also learn their culture. vii. Family:Family is one of the most important concepts in the culture. Different cultures define family in different ways. Some says that those who have a blood relation with you is your family member, other says that only your wife and kids are included in your family. According to an author “Anthropologists say a culture’s biological and marital kinship rules and patterns of reciprocal obligations define family”9, the definition varies of different cultures. The people from rural background define family in a larger sense; they include all of their relatives in the family and those from urban background define family in a little narrow sense as compared to the rural people. viii. Religion:Religion is the most important in cultural society. In most of the culture the religion is very respectful to all of the culture members and they also strictly obey their religion. 2.4.4 Concepts of Culture Counterculture: Counterculture is a subculture not merely different from but in opposition to the conventional and approved culture of the society. Culture Area: Culture area is a geographical area in which the societies share common cultural features including language and social organizational forms. Shared cultural features are usually assumed to be related to fundamental features of the ecology of the area. Subculture: Subculture is a cluster of behaviour patterns related to the general culture of a society and yet distinguishable from it. Social Darwinism: Social Darwinism is the belief that social arrangements developed gradually on the basis of a competitive struggle in which the best adapted humans and social forms survived. Belief System: Belief system is the configuration of beliefs which exist in a particular society or culture. The term may be used to refer to the entirety of the knowledge and beliefs within a society including scientific and technological knowledge. It is used to describe the patterns of religious beliefs and values and the central principles underlying these which give distinctiveness 154
and coherence to the modes of thought within a society or culture. Max Weber used the term weltanshauung for the belief system of a particular social group. 2.4.5 Folkways and Mores The concept of folkways is associated with the name of William Graham Sumner who made one of the most fruitful and clarifying analysis of culture and its implications. In his sociological classic Folkways Sumner has made a notable contribution to the understanding of individual behavior. Sumner conceived of culture in terms of folkways and mores and used the term folkways in a very comprehensive sense. The concept of folkways is associated with the name of William Graham Sumner who made one of the most fruitful and clarifying analysis of culture and its implications. He was one of the best -loved and most inspiring teachers at Yale where he used to teach political economy but later he changed his interest to sociology. In his sociological classic Folkways Sumner has made a notable contribution to the understanding of individual behavior. Sumner conceived of culture in terms of folkways and mores and used the term folkways in a very comprehensive sense. Folkways are recognized ways of behavior. The folkways are thus the recognized ways of behaving and acting in societies that arise automatically within a group to meet the problems of social living. According to Maclver Folkways are the recognized or accepted ways of behaving in society. According to Lundberg Folkways are the typical or habitual beliefs, attitudes and styles of conduct observed within a group or community. 2.4.5.1 The Meaning of Mores Sumner applied the term mores to those folkways which are considered by the group to be of great significance and therefore rather indispensable to its welfare. He writes I mean by mores the popular usages and traditions when they include a judgment that they are conducive to social welfare and when they exert coercion on the individual to conform to them although they are not coordinated by any authority. The term Mores is derived from the Latin word 'mos' which stands for customs and just as customs cannot be violated by any individual so mores also cannot be violated without incurring severe punishment. The mores relate to the fundamental needs of society more directly than do the folkways. They express the group sense of what is fitting, right and conducive to social welfare. Sumner has written the Latin word mores seems to be on the whole more practically convenient and available than any other for our purpose as a name for the folkways with the connotations of right and truth in respect to welfare embodied in them. 2.4.5.2 Values The term 'value' has a meaning in sociology that is both similar to and yet distinct from the meaning assigned to it in everyday speech. In sociological usage, values are group conceptions of the relative desirability of things. The idea of deeply held convictions is more illustrative of the sociological concept of value than is the concept of price. In addition, there are four other aspects of the sociological 155
concept of value. They are: (1) values exist at different levels of generality or abstraction; (2) values tend to be hierarchically arranged (3) values are explicit and implicit in varying degrees; and (4) values often are in conflict with one another. 2.4.6 Influences of Culture Cultural factor influences the direction and character of technological change Culture not only influences our social relationships, it also influences the direction and character of technological change. It is not only our beliefs and social institutions must correspond to the changes in technology but our beliefs and social institutions determine the use to which the technological inventions will be put. The tools and techniques of technology are indifferent to the use we make of them. For example the atomic energy can be used for the production of deadly war weapons or for the production of economic goods that satisfy the basic needs of man. The factories can produce the armaments or necessaries of life. Steel and iron can be used forbuilding warships or tractors. It is a culture that decides the purpose to which a technical invention must be put. Although technology has advanced geometrically in the recent past, technology alone does not cause social change. It does not by itself even cause further advances in technology. Social values play a dominant role here. It is the complex combination of technology and social values which produces conditions that encourage further technological change. For example the belief or the idea that human life must not be sacrificed for wants of medical treatment, contributed to the advancement in medical technology. Max Weber in his The Protestant Ethic and the spirit of Capitalism has made a classical attempt to establish a correlation between the changes in the religious outlook, beliefs and practices of the people on the one hand and their economic behavior on the other. He has observed capitalism could grow in the western societies to very great extent and not in the eastern countries like India and China. Cultural factors play a positive as well as negative role in bringing about technological changes. Cultural factors such as habits, traditions, values etc. may resist the technological inventions. On the other hand, factors such as breakdown in the unity of social values, diversification in the social institutional craving to the new thoughts, values etc. may contribute to the technological inventions. Technological changes do not take place on their own. They are engineered by men only. Technology is the creation of man. Men are always moved by ideas, thoughts, values, beliefs, morals and philosophies etc. These are the elements of culture. These sometimes decide or influence the direction in which technology undergoes change. Men are becoming more and more materialistic in their attitude. This change in the attitude and outlook is reflected in the technological field. Thus in order to lead a comfortable life and to minimize the manual labor man started inventing new techniques, machines, instruments and devices. 2.4.7 Subcultures and Counter cultures A subculture is a culture shared and actively participated in by a minority of people within a broader culture. 156
A culture often contains numerous subcultures. Subcultures incorporate large parts of the broader cultures of which they are part, but in specifics they may differ radically. Some subcultures achieve such a status that they acquire a name of their own. Examples of subcultures could include:bikers, military culture and Star Trekfans (trekkers or trekkies). A counter culture is a subculture with the addition that some of its beliefs, values, or norms challenge those of the main culture of which it is part. Examples of counter cultures could include: the tribal movements in India, the green movement, and feminist movements. 2.5 SUMMARY The human beings come into the world as biological organisms with physiological needs. They gradually get moulded into social beings and learn social ways of acting and feeling. Without this process of moulding, the society cannot continue itself, nor could culture exist. Culture describes a certain set of customs, ideas and social behavior of a group of similar people in a society. Geographical borders usually segregate cultures. Some characteristics like language, religion, food habits, social norms, music and arts stay specific in one particular culture. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. How many types of Cultures are there in India? Explain. ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2. The term Mores derived from ........................... .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2.6 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Check your progress answers-I 1. Spanish word ‘Casta’ means ‘Lineage’ or race. 2. There are four Varnas, such as Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. Check your progress answers-II 1. There are several types of Culture such as material culture, dressing, food, buildings, language, Religion and education etc. 2. The term Mores derived from the Latin word ‘MOS’. 157
2.7 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each. 1. Explain the concept and importance of Social Structure. 2. Write a note on Indian Caste System. I. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each. 1. Analyse the Social Institutions. 2. Discuss the influences of Culture. 2.8 FURTHER READINGS 1. Subas Mohapatra: Society and Culture in India: A Reader, New Delhi : Orient BlackSwan (2017), Mc. Graw Hill Education, 2011. 2. Richard T. Schafer: Sociology Matters. Boston: McGraw Hill (2004), Pearson Education, Canada, 2007. 3. John J. Macionis and Nijole V. Benokraitis: Classic, Contemporary and Cross-Cultural Readings in Sociology Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall (1998), Basic Books, May 19th 1977 (First Published, 1973). 4. Arnold, Matthew: Culture and Anarchy. New York:Macmillan and Co. Geertz, Clifford. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures:Selected Essays. New York , Pearson Education. (1882). 5. Griswold, Wendy: Cultures and Societies in a Changing World.Thousand Oaks,CA: Pine Forge Press, SAGE Publication. (2004). 6. Halle, David: Inside Culture: Art and Class in the American Home. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press (1993). 7. Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J.-C: Reproduction in education, society and culture. Newbury Park, CA: Sage (1990). ****** 158
UNIT-3: TRANSITION FROM MEDIEVAL TO MODERN AGE Contents 3.0 Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Renaissance 3.1.2 Humanism 3.1.3 Secularism 3.2 Renaissance Literature 3.3 Art and Architecture 3.4 Philosophy 3.5 Beginning of the Scientific Revolution 3.6 Reformation 3.6.1 The Protestant Revolution 3.6.2 Economic and Political Changes 3.7 Rise of Nation States 3.8 Geographical Discoveries and Colonization 3.9 India on the eve of British conquest 3.10 Phases of colonialism 3.10.1 Marcantile Capital 1765-1813 3.10.2 Industrial Capital 1813-1858 3.10.3 Finance Capital 1858-1947 3.10.4 Plantations 3.11 Changes in Agriculture and Industry 3.12 Industries 3.12.1 Railways 3.13 Summary 3.14 Model Answers to Check Your Progress 3.15 Model Examination Questions 3.16 Further Readings 159
3.0 OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you should be able to; l To understand the economic and social factors which contributed to the processes of Renaissance and Reformation in Europe. l Describe the ideas of art and culture, values and institutions associated with Renaissance and Reformation, l Examine the process which led to the rise of modern-state in Europe and expansion of European powers to other parts of the world. l Explain the decline of Mughal Empire and its consequences and the advent of Europeans to India and the establishment of British Colonial rule. l Analyse the impact of British colonial rule on Indian economy. 3.1 INTRODUCTION In this Unit, we introduce the study of a very crucial period in human history in which the foundations of the modern world were laid. A number of inter-related developments took place in the period from about the fourteenth to the seventeenth century A.D. The terms 'Renaissance' and 'Reformation' are generally used to describe this period of transformation. The word 'Renaissance' means rebirth and it was used to refer to the revival or interest in the learning of ancient Greece and Rome. This deeply influenced European scholar as intellectuals. The Renaissance, however, was not a mere revival of ancient learning. It was marked by a series of new developments in the fields of art, literature, religion, philosophy, science and politics. The Reformation had a profound impact on the history of Europe which extended beyond the sphere of religion. Both Renaissance and Reformation had common social and economic causes. In their impact, they coincided, and together, they brought about the collapse of the feudal order and laid the foundations of a new social order. The period also saw the emergence of nation-states with new forms of political system and new political theories. This period was also the Age of Discovery when the voyages of exploration brought for the first time in history, all parts of the world into contact with one another. 3.1.1 Renaissance The Renaissance undermined feudalism of the Orthodox Church domination. The revival of pre-Christian Classical learning and of interest in the cultural achievements of ancient Greece and Rome was, in itself, an important factor in undermining the domination of the Church. The Renaissance, of course, went beyond mere revival and gave rise to a new way of thinking. 3.1.2 Humanism The chief characteristic of the Renaissance way of thinking was Humanism. Basically, it 160
meant a decisive shift in concern for human as distinct from divine matters. Humanism controlled man, stressed his essential worth and dignity, expressed invincible faith in his tremendous creative potential, and proclaimed freedom of the individual and his inalienable rights. The Humanists rejected or even ridiculed religious mortification of the flesh and withdrawal from the world. They urged man to seek joy on this earth rather than, an after-life which the church advocated. 3.1.3 Secularism Renaissance facilitated transformation of thought that had taken place from religious 'other-worldliness' to humanistic 'this-worldliness'. The humanist is more interested in the material world around, in the contents of the physical universe than in gods, angels or demons, whereas the medieval men of religion were more interested in God, angels or demons. This transformation which the Renaissance inaugurated may be termed as marking the passage from religion to secularism. The new intellectual and cultural climate which the Renaissance created influenced even the Church hierarchy. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. What is the meaning of Renaissance. ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2. The main characteristic of the Renaissance is .................... .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 3.2 RENAISSANCE LITERATURE The humanist ideas of the Renaissance found artistic expression in literature, painting, architecture, and sculpture. Some of the greatest writers, poets, and dramatists of the Renaissance were Patriarch and Boccaccio in Italy, Rabelais in France, Erasmus in Holland, Von Hutten in Germany, Cervantes in Spain and Shakespeare in England. The themes of their writings had little to do with religion or piety or asceticism and were often refold and anti-clerical. The most significant feature of the literary output of the Renaissance, and since, has been the use of vernacular languages, or the languages spoken by the people of a region or country. The Renaissance marks the emergence of modern European languages as languages of literature and the beginning of the development of these languages. 161
The first printed book, the Gutenberg's Bible, was brought out in 1456. In fifty years' time, after the introduction of the printing press, there were nine million books. This inevitably had an impact on society. 3.3 ART AND ARCHITECTURE Some of the greatest achievements of the Renaissance were made in the realm of painting, sculpture and architecture. The humanism of Renaissance found brilliant expression in these art forms. Art as an independent activity assumed a status which was unknown in the medieval times. The purpose of medieval art was to express moral values and impart religious teachings. The Renaissance marked the rise of artists, each with his unique individuality and style, who enjoyed great prestige in society. Fig 3.1 Monalisa by Leonardo da Fig 3.2 Madonna Vina Of all the art forms, Renaissance's supreme achievement was in painting. The Renaissance artists looked upon art as an imitation of life. The reader may try to know about and see the reproductions of some of the following paintings of the Renaissance: Botticelli's Allegory of Spring and Birth of Venus, Leonardo da Vinci's Virgin of the Rocks, Last Supper and Monalisa, Raphael's School of Athens, Sistine and Madonna and Michelangelo's series of frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome. The sculpture of the Renaissance period developed along the same lines as the painting. The medieval sculpture used images of saints and depicted religious themes as part of architecture. One of the significant developments now was the emergence of the free-standing sculpture. The Renaissance period thus, also marks the beginning of the decline of Gothic architecture which had dominated the architecture of cathedrals and churches from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. New styles of architecture began to be developed, first in Italy and later in other parts of Europe. These were based on the study of the ancient Roman architecture. The finest specimen of the new style was St. Peter's Church in Rome. 162
Fig 3.3 Michelangelo prescoes on the seiling of Sistine Chapel in Rome 3.4 PHILOSOPHY The dominant philosophical system of the Pre-Renaissance medieval Europe was scholasticism. Its purpose was to give a systematic account of the Christian doctrine and to free it of any internal contradictions. Another criterion was the authority of the scriptures. The acceptance of the doctrine was not based on its correspondence with facts, but on its legitimation by the scriptures or by an authoritative person. The Renaissance thinkers attacked scholasticism saying that it fed on itself, with its circular reasoning within a close system in which the basic premises bore no relation to reality. They asserted that knowledge could be gained by going out and studying mentally and manually the Book of Nature. Leonardo da Vinci, to whom reference has already been made, condemned the reliance on authority as a source of knowledge and advocated the use of the inductive method. Empiricism arose as a reaction to scholasticism and its speculative methods. Empiricism may be defined as an approach which holds that the sensory experience is the only source of knowledge. Francis Bacon, one of the pioneers of empiricism, emphasized the inductive method against the speculative method of the scholastic. The founding of the best effective scientific society, the Royal Society in England, was directly the result of his ideas. Descartes advocated that with clarity of thought it was possible to discover everything that was rationally knowable. He emphasized the importance of deductive thought and experiment as an aid to it. 3.5 BEGINNING OF THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION The Renaissance marked the beginning of modern science. One of the first achievements was in astronomy. This was an exposition by Copernicus of the rotation of the earth on its axis and its motion around the sun. This marked an important break with the ancient system of thought. For over a thousand years, it was believed that the earth was the centre of the universe. Copernicus's book, On the Revolution of the Celestial Orbs was published in 1543, the year in 163
which he died. About half a century after the publication of Copernicus's book in 1606, Gioardano Bruno was burnt for heresy which the vision of an infinite universe had inspired. The decisive proof of the new conception of the universe was made possible by the invention of the telescope which has been called the greatest scientific instrument of the age. Galileo, born eleven years after the death of Copernicus, used this instrument in his study of the heavenly bodies and the Copernicus theory was confirmed by Galileo's observations. Galileo's trial marked the end of a period in the history of science. Significant discoveries were made in the study of the human body and circulation of blood which helped to combat many superstitions. In 1543, the year in which Copernicus's book was published, Versailles, a Belgian, published his profusely illustrated De Hunan Carporis Fabrica. Based on the study of the dissections the human body, this book provided the first complete description of the anatomy of the human body. Servetus, a Spaniard, published a book explaining the circulation of blood. He was condemned to death for questioning the Church belief in Trinity. A complete account of the constant process of circulation of blood, from the heart to all parts of the body and hack again was given by Harvey, an Englishman, in about 1610 in his Dissertation upon the 'Movement of the Heart'. 3.6 REFORMATION The term Reformation implies two major developments in the history of Europe towards the latter part of Renaissance. First, the Protestant Revolution which resulted in a split in Christiandom and secondly, the secession of a large number of countries from the Roman Catholic Church by establishing separate Churches in those countries, generally along national lines. Reformation was not merely a religious movement. It was intimately connected with, and was in fact, a part of the social and political movements of the period which brought about the end of the medieval period and the emergence of the modern world. As in the case of Renaissance, Reformation must be seen in the context of the social, economic and political changes in Europe. The Catholic Church, during the early medieval period, had become a vast hierarchical organisation headed by the Pope in Rome. The Pope was the supreme authority over the entire hierarchy, and he exercised this authority directly. Any opinion or doctrine contrary to the Church dogma was considered heretical and was punished. The Church had established a vast machine to suppress heresy. Inquisition or a tribunal had been instituted for the discovery and punishment of heresy. All deviation and dissent from dogma and protest against the abuses of the Church was sought to be suppressed and heretics began to be burnt at the stake. John Wycliffe in England advocated the supreme authority of the Scriptures. The language of the Catholic Church was Latin, which, the common people did not understand. Wycliffe inspired the first English translation of the Bible. He condemned the Pope as the leader of the army of the devil. He denounced the elergy, condemned the indulgences and denied certain doctrines such as the Eucharist. He recruited what were known as Poor Preachers to spread the knowledge of the Scriptures among the common people. After his death in 1384, some of his followers went even beyond his ideas and condemned many doctrines and practices. 164
Fig 3.4 An Early Printing Press 3.6.1 The Protestant Revolution The Protestant Revolution can be said to have begun in 1517 when Martin Luther, a Monk of the Order of St. Augustine, nailed his Ninety-five Theses or statements attacking the sale of the indulgences, on the door of Church in Wittemberg in Germany. He challenged people to come and hold disputations with him on his theses and sent copies of his theses to his friends in a number of cities. Luther wrote a scares of pamphlets expounding his doctrines and came to the conclusion that his doctrines could not be reconciled with those of the Catholic Church and that he had no alternative but to break with the Catholic Church. In 1520, the Pope ordered him to recant within sixty days or be condemned as a heretic. The break with the Catholic Church was soon followed by revolts, first by the knights and then by lower classes, mainly peasants. These revolts, on the one hand, helped in eliminating opposition to Luther; on the other, they showed the limitation of Luther's movement as a movement of radical, social and economic reform. 3.6.2 Economic and Political Changes In addition to the doctrinal disputes and decadence of the Church, the Protestant Revolution was also influenced by economic and political changes in society. The social and economic changes leading to the rise in importance of the merchants, had strengthened this process. The Roman Catholic Church asserted its supremacy over all nationalities in all matters, including the matter of appointments and deposition of Kings. There emerged thus, a basic antagonism between the growing national consciousness and the Church. There could be no growth in nationalism without diminishing the powers of the Church. While discussing the political theories in the period of the Renaissance, we have referred to the rise of absolutism or depotism. The rules of states claimed total supremacy within their realms. They even claimed that their right to rule was a divine right. These rulers wanted complete authority not only over temporal affairs but also control over the Churches and the 165
priesthood within their kingdoms. Then there were various economic factors. The Church has a vast economic empire. The Churches and the monasteries under the control of the Pope had enormous wealth and owned vast lands. The Church imposed various kind of taxes, for example, the Peter’s Pence and Tithe. Much of this wealth drained from different countries was sent to Rome. Similarly, the proceeds from the sales of indulgences were sent to Rome. While the general population disliked a large portion of their wealth being sent to Rome. The Church properties were exempted from taxes and, therefore, the burden of taxation within a state fell on the merchants and the new class of rising capitalists. While religious differences perhaps could be sorted out, these fundamental antagonisms could not. The Protestant Revolution led to the establishment of separate national Churches under the control of the State. After the success of Luther in Germany, the Protestant Revolution spread to many other countries. The Reformation brought about a split in Western Christendom and, along with it, for a long time an increase in religious conflicts and wars. In a period of about twenty-five years (from 1560’s) eight religious wars ravaged France. The revival of evangelicalism, the religious crusading zeal of the rival Churches, led to the diminishing of some of the gains of the Ranaissance, particularly in shifting the focus from religious affairs of human affairs. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. The Great writer Von Hutlen belongs to ...................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2. The famous paintings of Leonardo da Vinci are ........................... .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 3.7 RISE OF NATION STATES If we look at the political map of thirteenth century Europe, we will recognize few of the nations of modern Europe which was ruled by thousands of feudal lords, and the political entities that characterize modern Europe did not exist. The process of political development, the culmination of which we see in the present day world in the form of independent and sovereign national states, started in the period of the Renaissance and the Reformation. This process started with the rise of national consciousness. It was the consciousness among people inhabiting a more or less defined territory that as people they were distinct. It began with the emergence of national monarchies, two of the earliest being in England and France. 166
The Kings tried to establish their supremacy over the feudal lords and the conflicts between the two lasted over a long period of time. The Kings were helped in their designs by merchants and other urban population. The rise of trade and the middle class in cities had taken place already. To free themselves from interference by feudal lords and to further promote their interests, the cities needed a strong central authority which the kings by curbing the power of the feudal lords, were trying to establish. A process of the disintegration of the power of the feudal lords started. This process was aided by the introduction in Europe of gunpowder against which the feudal castles and fortresses provided no defense. The rise of national languages also helped the process of the emergence of strong national states by strengthening national consciousness. The process of central expansion which started with the discovery of new sea-routes and new lands was also connected with these developments. The rise of nation-states which started in this period brought about the end of the political system of the middle ages which was characterized by decentralization of political power. In its place, emerged the nation-states which were characterized by despotic governments. In the following centuries, while the emergence of cohesive states on the basis of nationalism and strong government was to continue, the new feature in political development was the struggle against the absolutism of the rulers and the growth of political democracy. 3.8 GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES AND COLONISATION We have mentioned earlier that the growth of trade and of cities helped to undermine the feudal order and provided the background for new intellectual, artistic, religious and political developments. The lucrative trade with the east was controlled by the Italians, mainly the Venetians. The desire to have a share in this trade, first in Portugal and Spain, and later in England, France and Holland, led from the late fifteenth century onwards to great geographical discoveries, important changes within Europe, and the establishment of new patterns of international relationships. Though many people had come to believe that the earth was a sphere, still most people did not rule out the possibility that the sailors who went far into the ocean might sail on forever in an endless ocean or might fall down from the earth when they reached its end. The first great steps in the exploration of the earth were taken by the sailors under the patronage of Portuguese and Spanish rulers. The initial motive was to find a sea-route to the east and to have a share in the lucrative trade which was monopolized by the traders from Venice. Bartholomew Diaz sailed in 1487-88 across West Africa, crossed the Cape of Good Hope and reached the eastern coast of Africa. In 1492 Columbus, sailing west to fine a new route to the east reached the Americas, though he himself, even after three more successful voyages died ignorant of his great discovery. In 1497- 98 Vasco da Gamma finally discovered these out to India. Magellan (1519-22) was the first to successfully circumnavigate the world. His ships crossed the Atlantic Ocean, sailed across the Pacific Ocean and the survivors reached Spain after crossing the Indian Ocean. The new geographical discoveries had far-reaching 167
consequences for the entire world. The discovery of the sea-route to India led to the end of Venetian control and the establishment of the Portuguese monopoly over European trade with Asia. It marked also the beginning of the colonization of Asia, which in the following centuries was almost entirely subjugated by the European countries. The colonization of Africa also began, though it was confined to the coastal areas. The large scale conquest of Africa by the imperialist countries of Europe took place only in the nineteenth century. In the Americas, the geographical discoveries were followed in a period of few decades with the destruction of the civilizations of the Incas and the Aztecs and the subjugation of the large indigenous population by a small number of Europeans. One of the significant developments following the conquest of the Americas by the Europeans was the introduction of the plantation system in North America, West Indies and Brazil, mainly for the production of sugar-cane, tobacco and cotton. These plantations were worked by slave labour drawn from Africa. Slave trade was started in the late fifteenth century by individual merchants, sailors and pirates but, by the end of the sixteenth century, it passed into the hands of regular slave-trading companies officially approved by the governments of the European countries. For about 300 years, people of Africa were hunted, first in the coastal areas and then further in the interior, by slave traders and their agents, captured, transported across the Atlantic Ocean and sold to work in the plantations. Millions of Africans were captured and exported. Fig: 3.5 Geographical Discoveries 3.9 INDIA ON THE EVE OF BRITISH CONQUEST India at the time of British conquest, presented the picture of multiple political powers, competing with each other for supremacy and a frozen society with its emphasis on caste structure and with some social practices, amounting to evils. 168
Mughal Empire continued to be all-India power, effectively till the death of Aurangazeb and nominally ever after. By the middle of the 18th century, regional kingdoms like Bengal, Oudh, Golkonda, Mysore and Marathas were quite independent powers. They were competing with each other for extension of authority. Historians have identified broadly three types of states that replaced the Mughal empire. These characterizations help us to understand the nature of the smaller political formations. Firstly there was the 'successor state' i.e. provinces like Bengal, Awadh and Hyderabad which grew out of the body of the erstwhile Mughal empire. Murshid Quli Khan in Bengal, Saadat Khan in Awadh and Asaf Jah in Hyderabad were powerful nobles, governors and representatives of the Mughals who taking advantage of the chaos at the centre carved out kingdoms for themselves combining the hitherto separate departments of Nizamat and Diwani. The European trading companies, especially the English and the French, competed with each other for trade privileges and went to the extent of interfering in indigenous wards through supporting the rival contestants. Developments in Europe coupled with internal completion for trade privileges made them fight our their issues on Indian land, by allying themselves with one or the other local contestant for power. The 18th century in India was characterised as a century of transition which changed the structure of power and initiated important social and economic reconfigurations. The factors regarding the political decline of the Mughal Empire had triggered a debate on the nature of economic and social change in the wake of imperial collapse. The political disintegration of the empire is the most important development of the first half of the 18* century. The cataclysmic event has attracted the attention of generation of historians who continue to debate the causes of decline of Mughal empire, opinions are sharply divided between those who view the decline as a consequence of economic crisis and exploitation by the ruling classes and those who regard the political turmoil in terms of regional assertiveness triggered by certain degree of economic prosperity. The British colonial rule in India was started in the middle of the 18th century, when the East India Company (EIC) effectively began to build up its territorial and political power. The decline of Mughal Empire witnessed a period of internal political turmoil, warfare and anarchy. The mid-eighteenth century India characterized by internal warfare, also provided an ample opportunity for the East India Company to undertake colonial expansionism. The annexation of Awadh by Dalhousie in 1856 completed the political conquest of British in India. Thus the second half of the eighteenth century was a decisive period of the East India Company's domination and exploitation of India. The British colonial state in India had brought about substantial changes within the economy and society, for in reality colonies have undergone a fundamental transformation under European colonialism in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The economic policies followed by the British have resulted in the changes of India's economy into a colonial economy whose nature and structure were determined and conditioned by the needs and priorities of the metropolitan economy. Unlike other European countries who moved from feudalism to Capitalism. India had to 169
pass through and in-between stage of 'Colonial Modernization'. Though there was modernization of administration, education, transport, communications, industries to an extent and trade, sub- ordination and discrimination continued. l India was integrated with the world capitalist system, though in a subordinate position. Thus she was made an unequal member of international economy. l Drain or unilateral transfer of surplus without any return. l Foreign political domination wherein the colonial state plays a crucial role in the colony's structure. Colonialism can be traced to the heyday of Industrial Revolution. Its outbreak necessitated the need for more and more raw-materials and markets. Industrial revolution and colonialism strengthened each other under European powers, who competed with each other for control over colonies. The European powers began extending their commercial links with the various Asian and African countries and strengthened their hold on them. Subordination of Indian interests continued for a long time under three different phases - Mercantilist (1765-1813), Industrial Capital(1813-58) and Finance Capitalism/ Imperialism (1858- 1947). There phases overlapped and sometimes co-existed. 3.10 PHASES OF COLONIALISM 3.10.1 Mercantile Capital 1765-1813 This phase can be equated with direct plunder by the trading company. Soon after the battle of Plassey in1757, English East India Company (EIC) began using its political power to extract the wealth of Bengal through various forms. The British conquest of Bengal marked the beginning of plunder of Indian economic resources through the coercive use of state power. The merchant adventures of the East India Company increasingly resorted to diverse methods to secure a net favourable balance of trade with India and obtain the Indian goods for little or no payment. In 1765 the East-India Company acquired from the Mughal emperor the Diwani, i.e., right to collect the land revenue of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. In fact, it opened up a new field of unlimited accumulation of revenues in addition to the profits of trade. The main source of EIC's profits was land revenue. 3.10.2 Industrial Capital 1813-1858 This phase began with the end of East India Company's monopoly rights and consequently the opening of Indian trade to all the British industrialists and traders. Hence this phase was termed as free trade. By the mid-19th century, India emerged as the most important market in the British Empire and Britain supplied about 85% of Indian imports towards the end of the nineteenth century: about two-thirds of Britain's exports to India in 1880's consisted of cotton goods. The Britishers clamored for more and more raw-materials. Needs of British industry guided the British commercial policy. India was made a supplier of raw-materials, and a ready market where the finished goods can be dumped into. The previous trade in manufactured 170
goods slowly gave way to carrying away the raw-materials even from remote areas and again dumping them as finished goods in Indian markets. The chief consequence of massive imports of British cotton textiles and other manufactured goods into India was the decline of Indian handicrafts and de-industrialization. 3.10.3 Finance Capital 1858-1947 There was an expansion of British capital and entrepreneurship into India in as many ways as possible. The flow of foreign capital into India in the second half of the nineteenth century facilitated the growth of large-scale modern industries in India. British capital penetrated into the management of plantations, factory, industries, managing agencies, insurance companies, railways etc., British capitalists invested in transport facilities like railways and in industries such as shipping, heavy chemicals, banking, mines etc., 3.10.4 Plantations Europeans exclusively dominated the management of indigo, jute, tea and coffee plantations. Even by 1921, 56 out of 65 plantations were owned by the Europeans. Ownership of land and full freedom of contract attracted the British towards the plantations. Indigo plantations in Bengal and Bihar and jute in Bengal were grown on priority basis, since they were profitable. Number of tea planters increased in Assam from one in 1850 to 295 in 1871, the cultivated area rising from 1,876 to 31,303. 3.11 CHANGES IN AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY Colonial rule drastically changed the Indian economy impoverishing agriculture, extinguishing the native industry and pushing the trade to the background. Indian economy though put on the track of modernism, was not allowed to develop fully. The peasants suffered most under the British rule. This was because of the high rents demanded by the state. In the case of Permanent Revenue Settlement, the Zamindars dictated the rent and peasants were at their mercy. In Mahalwari and Ryotwari Settlements, the peasant were at the mercy of the government. Everywhere, there were high rents associated with oppression, demand for illegal dues, forced labour etc. New legal system added its own weight on the condition of the peasant. The legal processes were too complicated and expensive for the peasant. It vested more powers in the hands of Zamindars and money-lenders who were given the authority to seize the hand. There was a large number of intermediaries, receiving their shares on land, between the actual tenant and the government. Agriculture under the British rule became commercialized. The British insisted on payment in cash and hence, the peasant as at the mercy of market where the grain merchant dictated the price. Rural debt increased from Rs. 3,000 crores in 1911 to Rs. 800 Crores in 1937. Sub-divisions and fragmentation of lad, due to the pressure on land, resulted in the stagnation of agriculture. Frequent famines and years of scarcity added their own intensity. 171
3.12 INDUSTRIES The impact of colonial rule on industries was in two phases on cottage industries which became extinct and on modern factory industries which were deprived of necessary protection. Foreign capital dominated in jute, coal, shipping, banking, heavy chemicals etc. 3.12.1 Railways Lord Dalhousie, the Governor General of India who initiated a massive programme of railway construction in his famous Minute on Railways unambiguously defined the economic and commercial reasons. Means of transport, especially the railways, improved under the British rule, benefitting the British investors. Investment in railways was considered to be the secure channel. The Government of India guaranteed a minimum of 5% return Railway track of more than 4,000 miles was built by the guaranteed companies by 1869. About 28,000 miles of railways were ready by 1905. Along with development of railway construction, colonial India also witnessed the growth of European-owned tea, coffee and rubber plantations as well as a few industrial enterprises like coal mines, jute industries etc, which attracted considerable private British capital investment during the second half of the nineteenth century. Private British banking capital also began to grow as the presidency Banks Act of 1876 regulated the banks in India under government protection Western education was introduced by the colonial government mainly with the intention of filling in the lower cadres of administration and to develop a taste for European way of life. They intended the educated class to be Indians by birth, but Europeans by choice, so that the gap between the rulers and ruled be built. Police and judiciary were other structures created by the colonial state to enforce its power and laws. Several laws from Regulating Act in 1773 to the Government of India Act of Fig: 3.6 Industrial Evolution 172
1935 were passed, bringing changes in administration. Constitutional development did take place and Indians were gradually allowed a share in governance. All the changes in society were taking place within the parameters of colonialism. Hence, colonialism forms the constant backdrop for every major development that occurred within its frame work. 3.13 SUMMARY Colonialism means subordination of Indian interests to those of British. There were three significant phases - mercantilist, free trade and finance capital. Though mercantilist phase ended in 1813, the consequent two phases continued overlapping. In all these phases, there was unilateral transfer of resources for no return. This resulted in drastic consequences on agriculture, industry and trade. Various acts were passed and structures were created to strengthen colonial rule. Renaissance and Reformation set into motion a process that revolutionized the outlook of human beings on religion, society, political systems and cultiure. This process was the product of several socio-economic changes, such as the emergence of civic freedom, formation of occupational guilds, development of sea0borne foreign trade, geographical discoveries etc. The Renaissance marked the rise of Humanism which shifted the focus from divine principles to human beings. Human body was now considered as a thing of beauty, dignity and pleasure. This outlook generated new writings and literature, art and architecture where the emphasis was on beauty and aesthetic standards in relation to human conditions. With the promotion of secular ideas and rational thinking the doors for the development of modern science were thrown open. The conflict between Church and science ultimately resulted in favour of science and technology. The forces of Reformation challenged the abuse of authority by the Church. This not only resulted in the emergence of national churches but also compelled the Church hierarchy to introduce reforms like Counter Revolution. This was also a period which marked the emergence of nation-states in Europe along with new political theories. The rise merchant classes and geographical discoveries played a vital role in colonization and the establishment of European colonial regimes. 3.14 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Check your progress answers-I 1. Renaissance undermined feudalism of the Orthodox Church domination. 2. The main characteristic of the Renaissance way of thinking was Humanism. Check your progress answers-II 1. Von Husten belongs to Germany. 2. Virgin of the Rocks, Last supper and Monalisa. 3.15 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each. 1. Explain the Scientific Revolution and its importance. 2. Write an essay on phases of Colonialism. 173
II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each. 1. Discuss the Protestant Revolution. 2. Analyse the rise of Nation States. 3. Describe the impact of British conquest on Indian Society. 3.16 FURTHER READINGS 1. Hayes: Modern Europe, “A Political and Cultural History of Modern Europe Volume-2” - Pub. Macmillan, 1948. 2. Datta K.K: A Social History of Modern India, Pub - Meenakshi Prakashan, 1972. 3. Sumit Sarkar: Modern India, 1885-1947, Palgrave Macmillan, 1989. 4. Desia A.R.: Social Background of Indian Nationalism. Lawrence Verry Incorporated, 1979. ***** 174
UNIT-4: SOCIAL REFORMS AND INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT Contents 4.0 Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Social Reform Movements and Leaders 4.2.1 Brahma Samaj 4.2.2 Arya Samaj 4.2.3 Prarthana Samaj 4.2.4 Theosophical Society 4.2.5 Ramakrishna Mission 4.2.6 Aligarh Movement 4.2.7 Parsi Movement 4.2.8 Akali Movement 4.2.9 Movement against Caste and Untouchability 4.2.9.1 Jotiba Phule (1827-1890) 4.2.9.2 Narayana Guru (1854-1928) 4.2.9.3 Ramaswamu Naicker 4.2.9.4 Ayyankali (1863-1941) 4.2.9.5 C. Iyothee Thass (1845-1914) 4.2.9.6 Dr. Bheem Rao Ambedkar (1891-1956) 4.3 Impact of the Social Reform Movements 4.4 Indian National Movement 4.4.1 1857 Revolt 4.4.1.1 Causes 4.4.1.2 Defeat and Impact 4.4.2 Emergence of Indian National Movement 4.4.3 Moderate and Militant Nationalists 4.4.4 Swadeshi or Vandematharam Movement 4.4.5 Revolutionary Movement 4.4.6 Emergence of Mahatma Gandhi 4.4.7 Non Co-operation Movement (1920-1921) 4.4.8 Formation of Swaraj Party 4.4.9 Civil Disobediance Movement: Dandi Satyagraha (1930) 4.4.10 Revolutionary Movement 175
4.4.11 Emergence of Communist and Socialist Groups 4.4.12 Jawaharlal Nehru as a Socialist. 4.4.13 Impact on Congress 4.5 Towards Freedom 4.5.1 Quit India Movement (1942) 4.5.2 Indian Independence (1947) 4.6 Summary 4.7 Model Answers to Check Your Progress 4.8 Model Examination Questions 4.9 Further Readings 4.0 OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you should be able to; l Explain social reform movements during the 19th Century among the Hindus like the activities of Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, The Theosophical Society, Ramakrishan Mission & Aligarh movement. l Estimate the impact of the Social Reform Movements on the socio-political life of the people. l Analyse various phases of Indian National Movement. 4.1 INTRODUCTION 19th century witnessed many socio-religious reform movements. These reform movements brought many changes in the Indian Society. The educated Indians began to examine the Hindu social structure, religion, customs and conventions. This enquiry gave birth to modern socio-religious movements like the Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, Theosophical Society, Ramakrishna Mission etc., The social reforms and religious leaders came forward to rectify the evils that had cropped up in the society. They upheld the Hindu values of life and restored faith in the Indian culture. Their ideas inspired millions of social workers throughout the country. You are also introduced in this Unit to various phases of the Indian National movement. The Indian intelligentsia, who understood the British exploitation of the country's resources and its people realised the importance of freedom. They, in turn, awakened the masses towards the same goal. Many political associations were formed. The struggle for freedom was organised under the leadership of Indian National Congress formed in 1885. During this period, from 1885 to 1947 the leaders followed different strategies, organised several movements only with the final goal of Indian Independence. This period also witnessed the revolutionary movement, peasant and working class movements, state people’s movement etc., While dealing with National Movement, emphasis was laid on the socio-economi aspect of the movement. The Communist Party of India and the Socialist groups within the Congress worked for the socio-economic emancipation of the masses within the frame work of the Indian National Movement. 176
4.2 SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENT AND LEADERS The reform movements had two trends religious and social supplementing each other continuously. The religious trend found expressions in the growth and activities of institutions like the Brahmo Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj, the Ramakrishna Mission, the Arya Samaj and the Theosophical Society. The social trend manifested in itself demands for the cultivation of European ideas, the remarraige of the widows, the inter-caste marriage and the education for women. The reformers pleaded for the abolition of the Purdah, Child-marriage, Polygamy and caste distinctions. They urged for the removal of discriminations against the Harijans, the age of consent and women’s rights of inheritance. 4.2.1 Brahma Samaj Raja Ram Mohan Roy heralded a new era in India. He founded the Brahma Samaj in 1828. Born in a Brahmin family in Bengal, Ram Mohan Roy was a scholar of Arabic, Persian Sanskrit, English and Greek. He was one of the greatest socio-religious reformers of the 19th century. He was a brilliant product of the impact of western education on Indian culture. He realised that India required radical reforms. Brahama Samaj was a forum for the followers of all religions and a matrix for the evolution of a castless society. The Samaj advocated that tere is one God who Fig: 4.1 Raja Ram Mohan Roy is immune to birth, death and change. It regarded all men as equal and believed in the brotherhood of man. It started a magazine entitled Samwad Kaumuidi. The Brahma Samaj fought against casteism, untouchability, polygamy, child marriage and Sati system. It stood for freedom of press and did a commendable job in the field of female education. He encouraged English education. The Hindu College, which later developed into Presidency college, was started by Raja Ram Mohan Roy. 4.2.2 Arya Samaj Arya Samaj was founded by Dayananda Saraswati in 1875 at Bombay, now called Mumbai. His original name was Mulashankar. The Arya Samaj grew stronger in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bombay. Dayananda believed in the infallibility of Vedas. His motto "Back to Vedas" infused a new confidence among the Hindus. He condemned the caste system, child marriage. Arya Samaj believed in the unity of God. He started Shuddhi movement to bring back to Hinduism, those who had been converted to either Islam or Christianity. Arya Samaj brought a happy blending of the scientific temper of the West and the spiritual philosophy of the East. Fig: 4.2 Maharshi Dayananda Saraswati 177
4.2.3 Prarthana Samaj Another theistic organisation which owned its inspiration of Brahmoism is Prarthana Samaj started in Maharashtra in 1867. It was started in Bombay under the leadership of Dr. Atmaram Pandurang. This organisation came into existence under the enthusiastic guidance of Keshava Chandra Sen. The membes of Prarthana Samaj were dedicated theists, followers of the great religious tradition of Maratha and Saints like Nam Dev, Tukaram and Ramdas. Rational worship, the disapproval of caste, the introduction of widow-remarriage, the encouragement of women’s education, the abolition of child-marriage were some of the main objectives of Prarthana Samaj. The Samaj had its branches in Bombay and Madras provinces, Prof. R.G. Bhandarkar, Narayan Ganesh Chandravarkar and Pandita Ramabai Saraswati were some of the distinguished members of the Samaj. 4.2.4 Theosophical Society The Theosophical Society was founded by Madam Blavatskey and Col.H.S. Olcott in New York. After some time it shifted its headquarters to Adyar, near Madras. It aimed at establishing uniformity of all religions, to explain the importance of spiritual life, and spread the universal brotherhood. Under the Presidentship of Annie Besant, it became a powerful force. She believed that Hinduism was the essence of world philosophy and infused into Indians a pride for their past. The Society tried to revive ancient ideals and institutions of India. Annie Besant founded the central Hindu College at Benaras, which later became Benaras Hindu University. She also formed the Home Rule League for the Indian Independence and worked for the upliftment of the down trodden in the society. 4.2.5 Ramakrishna Mission Ramakrishna Paramahamsa was a man of enlightened and liberal outlook. He was a great devotee of Goddess Kali. His thinking was deep rooted in Indian thought and culture. He believed that all religions were paths that lead to the same God. He gave his people a sense of self-respect and self-reliance. He stood for social reforms and preached that selfless service to humanity was the selfless service to god. Swamy Vivekananda was one of the chief disciples of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. He carried forward the Fig: 4.3 Ramakrishna messages of his master in India and abroad. He attended the Paramahamsa Parliament of World Religions at Chicalgo on 11th September, 1893 and made a great impression by his learned interpretations. He founded the Ramakrishna Mission at Belur in 1897. Today, the Mission runs a number of charitable works on calamities like famine, floods etc., Swamy Vivekananda pleaded for social justice and reforms, preached self-reliance and upheld the cause of downtrodden. He denounced poverty, superstitions and encouraged mass education. The Ramakrishna Mission established many schools and inspired people towards the service of less privileged and less fortunate human beings. 178
4.2.6 Aligarh Movement Aligarh Movement was organised by Sir Sayyed Ahmed Khan to improve the condition of the Muslims. He worked to bring about modern scientific knowledge through English education among the Muslims. In 1875 he established the Anglo-Oriental School at Aligarh which became the Aligarh Muslim University in 1920. His ideals were propagated through an Urdu daily, Tahazeebul Akhla. he condemned the Purdah System and favoured Women's education. Consequently, Muslims began to learn western sciences and worked towards the upliftment Fig: 4.4 Sir Sayyed Ahmed Khan of Muslim women. 4.2.7 Parsi Movement Religion reform has begum among the Parsis in Bombay in the middle of the 19th Century. The Parsi community took cause of its purification. In 1851, the ‘Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha’ on Religious Reform Association was founded by the enlightened Parsis to reform their creed and society. This Sabha insisted on the pristine purity of Zorastrian religion. They started a weekly journal called ‘Rast Goftar’ for social and religious reform. Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji and S.S. Bengali were the leading Parsi reformers. Religious Reform Association compaigned against the entrenched orthodoxy in the religious field and initiated the Fig: 4.5 B.M. Malabari modernisation of Parsi social customs regarding education of women, marriage and social position of women in general. B.M. Malabari, a Parsi leader of great influence, strove hard for the cause of women and children, and founded the ‘Seva Sadan’ for the social welfare work. In course of time, the Parsi became socially the most westernised section of Indian Society. 4.2.8 Akali Movement Under the influence of religious awakening, the Sikhs also tried to purify their sect and society. The revivalist movement among them appeared when the Khalsa College was established at Amritsar by the progressive Sikhs in 1890. The Shiromani Gurudwara Prabhandhak Committee was started by the Sikhs to get rid of the corrupt Mahants and to reform the Gurudwaras. But, the reform movement gained momentum after 1920 when Akali Movement rose in the Punjab. The main aim of the Akalis was to purify the management of the Gurudwaras or Sikh shrines. 4.2.9 Movement against Caste and untouchability Almost all the reformers worked for the progress of depressed classes and removal of untouchability. They encouraged inter-caste marriages and worked for the upliftment of depressed 179
classes. In the 20th century Mahatma Gandhi worked towards the eradication of untouchability. He condemned the socio-economic atrocities on the depressed classes through his News Papers like "The Young India", "Nava Jeevan" and "Harijan". In the same manner reformers like Dr.Bheem Rao Ambedkar, Jotirao Phuley, Narayana Guru and Ramaswamy Naicker, through various programmes, worked towards improving the conditions of the depressed classes. 4.2.9.1 Satyasodhak Samaj - Jotiba Phule (1827-1890) Jotiba Phule belonged to Maharashtra region. He organised a powerful non-Brahmin movement. He worked for Women’s education and emancipation, removal of untouchability and the emancipation of Dalits. Phule founded the "Satya Shodak Samaj" in 1873 and the "Dinabandhu Sarvajanik Sabha" in 1884. He championed the cause of women's education and established a school for low caste women at Pune in 1848 itself. The aim of Phule movement was to save the low castes form the upper castes priests and Fig: 4.6 Jotibha Phule their scriptures. This movement spread like wildfire in the Maharashta region. 4.2.5.2 Narayana Guru (1854-1928) Narayana Guru worked towards creating a New social order based on the twin principles of equality and justice. He belonged to Ezhava family Travencore in Keral State. In 1903 he founded Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam for the promotion of socio-econoic, educational and cultural progress of the depressed classes, especially the Ezhava community. He worked for the abolition of caste system and untouchability. He advocated inter-caste marriages as a means of evolving a classless and casteless society. He organised the temple entry Fig: 4.7 Narayana Guru programme and installed an idol at Aravaipuram temple in 1880. Many backward and depressed class people in Kerala were inspired by his teachings and gained a new spirit and self confidence. 4.2.5.3 Ramaswamy Naicker Ramaswamy Naicker is noted for his self-respect movement in the Tamilnadu region. He exhorted the non- Brahmin communities to keep up their self-respect and maintain it at any cost. Born in Erode, Naicker opposed the prevailing social inequality and untouchability in the society. He joined the congress party and became the president of The Tamilnadu Congress Committee. He emerged as a mass leader by leading an agitation against the restrictions imposed on the unthouchables in the Travancore State. He organised the non- Fig: 4.8 Ramaswamy Naicker Brahmin Classes Conference at Madurai in 1936. Through his self-respect movement, he emerged as a great leader of the non-Brahmin movement in the South. 180
4.2.9.4 Ayyankali (1863-1941) Ayyankali (also Ayyan Kali) was a social reformer who worked for the advancement of those people in the princely state of Travancore, British India, who were treated as untouchables. His efforts influenced many changes that improved the social well being of those people, who are today often referred to as Dalits. He the member of Srimulam Praja Assembly at Travencore and started Sadhujana Paripalana Yogam. Fig: 4.9 Ayyankali 4.2.9.5 C. Iyothee Thass (1845-1914) C. Iyothee Thass was a prominent Tamil Activist and anti- caste activist and a practitioner of Siddha medicine. He famously converted to Buddhism and called upon the Paraiyars to do the same, arguing that this was their original religion. He also founded the Punchmar Mahajana Sabha in 1891 along with Rettaimalai Srinivasan. Punchamas are the one who does not come under Varna system. They are called as Avarnas. 4.2.9.6 Dr. Bheem Rao Ambedkar (1891-1956) Fig: 4.10 C.Iyothee Dr. Ambedkar, the architect of Indian Constitution, pained to see the pitiable and miserable condition of the depressed classes. Throughout his life he strived to secure social justice to the depressed classes. He fought for the socio-economic and educational upliftment of the depressed classes through several movement from Mahad Satyagrah to secure rights to the deprived sections in the Indian Constitution. The first Law Minister of Independent India proposed Hindu Code Bill securing rights to women. Fig: 4.11 Dr. Bheem Rao Ambedkar 4.3 IMPACT OF THE SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENTS The socio-religious reform movements had a great impact on the socio-religious and political life of the Indians. By encouraging the study of western language and literature, the reformers contributed to the modernization of India. Hinduism received a scientific approach 181
the movements also awakened national consciousness among the Indians. Henceforth people began taking pride of their ancient culture and their self confidence was boosted up to a great extent. All these, in turn, paved the way for the India’s struggle for freedom. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. Explain the principles of Brahma Samaj. ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2. Which society Jotiha Phule was founded? .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 4.4 INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT The intellectual awakening in India during the 19th Century was mainly due to the structural changes brought out under the impact of British rule which resulted in the creation of new social classes among them, the most important being the educated intelligentsia, who under the influence of western culture initiated National Movement. It led to the grasp of the exploitative nature of the British rule and the contradiction between the economic interests of the Indian and the British. This awareness resulted in the birth of nationalism in India. There are several phases in the National Movement. Started with the first great struggle of the Indian people for freedom from British imperialism in 1857. It ended in 1947 with the attainment of freedom. 4.4.1 Revolt of 1857 The Revolt that occurred in 1857 was called as "The First war of Indian Independence" by V.D. Savankar. This movement witnessed the participation of numerous soldiers, artisans, peasants, zamindars and royalists. It was, indeed, a reflection of nearly a century old discontent over the British policies and exploitation. The British, after their conquest of India, began colonising its economy and society. The people of all walks of life began to be impoverished at some stage or the other. Their discontentment reflected in the for of 1857 rebellion which had thoroughly shaken the British Raj to its very foundation. 4.4.1.1 Causes The most important thing to be done in 1857 was to throw off the foreign yoike which symbolised evil. The movement was not confined only to sepoys. It included the supporters of Nana Saheb Phadnaris, Bahadur Shah, Maulvi Fazl-i-Haq Khairabadi, a number of land lords, peasants, artisans etc. The revolt occurred on 10th May, 1857 when the sepoys in the meenut regiment shot doion their officers. They broke open the prisons, released their comrades and 182
marched towards Delhi. This was an expression of the grievances of sepoys against their British employers, ranging from the usage of greased cartridges to various other service conditions. Infact, the rebellion was a product of the acculated grievances of the Indian people against the British rule. Some of the important causes of the revolt are the annexation of the princely states, British interference in the socio-religious life of the Indians, disruption of the traditional Indian economy and its subordination to British economy and the intense economy exploitation of the country. Further the land revenue policy of the British caused lot of hardship to the peasants who lost their lands to revenue farmers, traders and money lenders. Destruction of handloom and cottage industries impoverished many Indians. Above all the country witnessed famines between 1770 and 1857 which added fuel to fire. The alien character of the British Government aroused the self respect of the Indians who wanted to be ruled only by their own people. 4.4.1.2 Defeat and Impact The revolt spread to the whole of northern India. All important sections of the people were united. Hindus and Muslims stood together. It was a combination of military grievances, national hatred and religious fanaticisim against the foreigners. Though they fought bravely, they lacked discipline and organisation. There was no scheme of co-ordinated action. There was no proper military plan of operation. Above all, the rebels lacked a great leader who could guide them in proper direction. No wonder the rebels met with a great defeat in the hands of the British. However, the revolt of 1857 was the last attempt of an effete order to recover its departed glory. The ground was now cleared for the operation of new forces. On the British side the revolt ended the "Sovereign" operations of the trading East India Company. The governance of Indian was now of the British Government and the crown. 4.4.2 Emergence of Indian National Movement The failure of 1857 rebellion made it clear that it was not possible to defeat modern imperialism by an old social order with an old social outlook. Hence, the need for a new and modern social force capable of organising and mobilising the masses, was felt by the nation. Establishment of Indian National Congress in 1885 heralded a new era in the Indian political life. A truly national organisation, it represented almost all the Indian Classes and their interests. It spread the feeling of nationalism throughout the country. Many factors were responsible for the Indian National Movement. But the important factor was the conflicting interests of the Indians at large and the British. The British conquered India to promote their own interests. These conflicting interests hampered Indians of their socio-economic cultural, intellectual and political developments. With the passage of time, there was a realisation in India and that realisation brought bitterness against foreign rule. That was responsible for the growth of National Movement to drive out the foreigners from the country. Let us examine some of the important factors that contributed the rise of organised nationalism in India. 183
Role of Intelligentia: Initial stages of the National movement was dominated by the modern Indian intellectuals. During the first half of the 19th century they adopted a positive approach towards the colonial rule. l They believed in the restructuring of the Indian society with the British help since Great Britain was the most advanced country of the time. l The intellectuals hoped that the British would industrialize India and introduce modern capitalism. l They believed that the British would introduce modern science and technology which would help India attain her social and cultural advancement. These beliefs made them support the British rule and co-operate with them in the initial stages. However, the second half of the 19th Century witnessed the gradual disillusionment of the intellectuals. Soon they understood that the trust that they reposed in the British would not help them in any way. They understood that: l British colonialism was disrupting the Indian economy and preventing the rise of modern industry and agriculture. l British Government was not interested in the promotion of democracy and self- Government in India. l British neglected the education of masses, curbed civil liberties and followed the policy of divide and rule. Under such circumstances, the intelligentsia had decided to work through various associations. The Bengal British Indian Society and other associations were founded during 1840's and 1850's. But they were local in character. However, the third half of the 19th century witnessed the foundation of Poona Sarvajanik Sabha in Maharashtra, the Indian Association in Bengal, Madras Mahajan Sabha and the Bombay Presidency Association. Ommissions and Commissions of the Colonial Government: l The Arms Act of 1878 disarmed the entire Indian Population. l The vernacular Press Act of 1878 curtailed the freedom of vernacular press. l Reduction of maximum age limit for attaining the Civil Service Examinations from 21 to 19 affected the prospects of educated Indians. l The Imperial Durbar of 1877, held at Delhi by Lord Lytton, and the Anglo-Afghan War were considered by the Indians as a financial burden on the exchequers. All these factors clearly explain the nature and character of the British rule in India though Lrod Rippon, the then Viceroy, tired to remove the racial discrimination by introducing 184
the Illbert Bill, he was unsuccessful due to the stiff opposition of the British officials. These factors created a favourable atmosphere to the growth of Indian Nationalism. Establishment of Indian National Congress The Indian National Congress was founded by A.O.Hume, a retired civil servant in 1885 at Bombay. The then Viceroy Lord Duffirin also favored the move. In fact these British men wanted the Congress to act as a "Safety Valve" and perform the role of His Majestry's opposition in England. The first session of the congress was chaired by W.C. Banerjee. It was held at Bombay in December, 1885. It Fig: 4.12 Nouroji was a humble beginning of the Indian National Movement. 4.4.3 Moderate and Militant Nationalists The early nationalists were called as the "Moderates". They examined the three forms of colonial economic escploitation such as exploitation through trade, industry and finance. They understood the nature of British colonialism and vehemently opposed the British attempt to convert Indian economy into a colonial economy. Moderates: Aims and Objectives The first twenty years of the National Movement was dominated by the Moderates. The prominent leaders of the Moderates were A.O. Hune, Dadabai Naoroji, Gopala Krishna Gokhale and Surendranath Banerjee. They had faith in the British sense of justice and fair play. They felt that India was to be modernized and uplifted by the benevolent and liberal rule of the British. The Moderates believed in orderly progress and constitutional agitation. They believed in patience, steadiness, conciliation and union. Hence, they followed the principle of "Prayer, Petition and Protest". A British Committee of the Indian National Congress was founded in 1906. It published a journal called "India" to bring out the Indian problems to the notice of the Englishmen. The moderates demanded. l Rapid Indianisation of Services l Reorganization of Legislative Councils l Separation of the Executive form the Judiciary l Reduction of Military Budget l Reduction of Salt Tax l Establishment of Technical Schools l Removal of untouchability However, the Government's attitude was not favourable towards the Congress. Hence, only few of the reforms advocated by the moderates were carried out. Due to their effort, the 185
Indian Council Act of 1892 was passed by the British Parliament. The Moderates were also successful in creating a wide political awakening among the Indians. People now were thoroughly exposed to the principles of democracy and civil liberty. Inspite of their failures, the Moderates laid strong foundation to the Indian National Movement. Militant Nationalism or Extremist Nationalism: Aims and Methods The early years of the 20th century witnessed the rise of Extremism within the congress. Important leaders of the Extremists were Lal Lajpat Rai, Bala Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal. The continued apathy of the Government, revivalism among the Hindus, reactionary policies of Lord Curzon, British military successes aborad and the success of revolutionary movements in Ireland, Russia, Egypt,Turkey and China were the factors responsible for the rise of the Extremists. The Extremists, in contrast to the moderates, advocated a policy of agitation. They followed a four fold programme consisting of the demand for Swaraj, boycott of foreign goods, the usage of swadeshi goods and the national education. Their activities increased the self-confidence and self reliance among the Indians. Fig: 4.13 Lala Lajapat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal 4.4.4 Swadeshi or Vandemathram Movement Swadeshi was the watch word of Bala Gangadhar Tilak. He declared "Swaraj is my birth right and I will have it". There was an agitation in 1905-06 against the partition of Bengal. This was called the anti-partition agitation organised under the leadership of Surendranath Banarjee. The Swadesh spirit was the most important aspect of the Vandemataram movement. People boycotted the British educational institutions. Some Indians even started industries for the manufacture of steel, shipbuilding, chemicals and other articles. Many national educational institutions were established for Fig: 4.14 Swani Vivekananda 186
the education of Indians. Poet Rabindranath Tagore stopped using English as lingua franca and exhorted the people to do so. The anti-partition agitation continued till 1908. In the back drop of growing differences between the Moderates and Extremist sections of the Congress, the annual session of the Congress was held at Surat in 1907. Differences arose between the two sections over the agenda to be discussed, election of the president and the future course of action. This was followed by verbal and physical clashes between the two groups. At the end the Extremists left the congress and they retained out side its fold till 1916. The Extremists believed that reforms could be secured only by action and not by talks. However, the Extremists could not achieve any concrete results due to the coercive steps of the British Government. Tilak was arrested and imprisoned in Mandalay jail. In the year 1911, when the British Emperor George-V visited India, the Emperor himself announced the reunification of Bengal province. 4.4.5 Revolutionary Movement Revolutionary movement was centred around Bengal, Punjab and Maharashtra and subsequently spread to the rest of India. Revolutionary centres were organised by Bhupendranath Dutta, brother of Vivekananda, Narendra Nath Bhattacharya, Barindra Kumar Ghosh and Aswani Kumar Dutta in Bengal. Some terrorists of Bengal even threw a bomb at Mr.Kinsford, the Presidency Magistrate. These terrorists were later hanged to death by the British Government. In Maharashtra Vinayak Damodar Sarvarkar and Shyamaji Krishna led the revolutionary activities Fig: 4.15 Mahatma Gandhi against the British Raj. In Punjab Sardar Ajit Singh led the revolutionary activities. Some of the terrorists of Punjab hurled bomb at Lord Hardinge in 1912. Lala Hardyal of Punjab organised the Ghadar Party in the United States of America. But all the revolutionary activities were put down by the government with an iron hard. It was under this circumstances that the First World War broke out in 1914. By 1915, Tilak emerged as the undisputed leader of the masses. However, the year 1916 witnessed the reunion of the two wings of the congress and also the congress and the Muslim League. Henceforth, the congress and the Muslim League organised joint resistance against the British dominance. In 1916 Tilak and Annie Besant started the Home Rule Movement in India. It aimed at the attainment of "Home Rule" or "Self-Government" for the Indians. From this time till his death in 1920, Tilak dominated the Indian political score. He was truly one of the greatest Indian leaders of the pre-Gandhian era. He taught the philosophy of defiance to Indians. He deserves to be called the "Father of Indian Unrest". 187
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. V.D. Savarkar 1857 Revolt was called as .................. ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2. The Indian National Congress was founded by ............................ .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 4.4.6 Emergence of Mahatma Gandhi The third and the last phase of the National Movement began in 1919. During this period the National Movement became a mass movement. When World War -I was fought, the allies, especially England, termed it as a was to preserve democracy in the world. Indians co-operated with the British during the war time. But once the was was over, the British were not willing to end the colonial rule in India. It was the time when there was a void in the Indian political scenario. Tilak died in 1920 and the Indians became leader less. It was at that time that Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi came forward to lead the Indians against the British. He dominated the scene of Indian politics from 1919 to 1947. Hence, this period was called as "the Gandhian Era". Most of the movements during this period were led by Gandhiji himself. He introduced non-violence and Satyagraha into the National Movement. he had already tested them in South Africa while fighting for the rights of immigrant Indians. His struggle for the peasants in Champaran (Bihar) and the working class in Ahmedabad were also based on the principle of non-violence. Official Response During the World War I period, the British Government adopted repressive measures against the Government. In March 1919, the Rowlatt Act was passed which authorised the governance to imprison any person without trial. Gandhiji started a Satyagraha Sabha to protest against the Act. Government took stringent measures to curtail movement against the Rowlatt Act. Many leaders were arrested. To protest against the arrest of leaders, a public meeting was arranged at Jallianwallah Bagh on April 13th 1919. When the meeting started General Dyer arrived at the venue with soldiers, and without warning started firing at the gathering. Since there was only one outlet, many could not escape firing. Many lost their lives and many were injured. That made Indians furious and further increased their hatred against the British. Similarly, the Sultan of Turkey lost many territories to the British after World War I. He also lost 188
his position of Kalifa (The religious head of Islam). These hurt the sentiments of Indian Muslims too. They started the "Khilafat Movement" against the British. Gandhiji found a good opportunity in these movements to launch his agitation against the British. He wanted the Muslims to start non-violent non-co-operation movement to achieve their goal. Thus the Khilafat agitation merged with the non-cooperation movement which Gandhiji started in 1920. 4.4.7 Non Co-Operation Movement (1920-1921) Non co-operation movement was started by Gandhi in 1920, August. The people were asked to boycott government educational institutions, give up official titles and honours, boycott government offices, law courts, legislatures and foreign goods. There was a tremendous repsonse to the call of their leader. Lakhs of students left the educational institutions; hundreds of lawyers gave up their practice; elections to the legislature were boycotted; foreign cloths were burnt down. The movement which was going on with great enthusiasm was called off by Gandhi on 12th February, 1922. The reason was violent reaction of the agitators at "Chauri-Chaura" in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh. Here the agitatiors attacked the police station and burnt it, resulting in the death of about 22 policemen. This violent inclolent forced Gandhi to suspend the movement. However, the movement had far-reaching consequences. It was a movement in which all sections of the society willingly participated. It was infact, a peoples movement. The import of foreign goods got considerably reduced and there was an increase in the manufacture of Khadi Products. The movement also created on awareness among the people against the practice of untouchability. Hindu-Muslim unity was strengthened. In general it inculcated a spirit of freedom and political consciousness among the Indians. 4.4.8 Formation of Swaraj Party After the withdrawal of non co-operation movement, leaders like C.R.Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party in 1920. They wanted to wreck the constituiton (Montague- Chelmsford Reform-1919) from within. They even contested the election of 1921 with striking success. Motilal Nehru introduced a resolution asking the government to call for a Round Table Conference for removing the dead lock. In November 1927, the British government constituted the Simon Commission, under the Chairmanship of Sir John Simon. the Commission was to enquire into the working of the reform of 1919. Since the commission had no Indians in it, it was boycotted by the congress. The commission was greeted with black flags and with the slogan "Simon Go Back". This was followed by the First Round Table Conference in 1930 which was boycotted by the Congress. 4.4.9 Civil Disobedience Movement: Dandi Satyagraha (1930) The Civil Disobedience movement was launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1930. He opposed the salt tax which was a financial burden on the common man. From Sabarmati to Dandi, Ganhdiji covered 240 miles on foot. Enroute, he was welcomed by millions of people. A note worthy feature of the movement was the participation of women in large number. In the North- Western Frontier Provinces, the movement was organised by the Pathans under Khan Abdul Khafur Khan. Gandhiji violated the Salt law by extracting salt from sea water. 189
Fig: 4.16 Dandi March There was a favourable response to the movement. Hundreds of government servants left the job. Many legislators resigned their seats. Peasants refused to pay taxes to the government. Millions participated in hartals, demonstrations, picketing of liquor shops and boycott of foreign goods. This was followed by the signing of Gandhi-grwin pact in 1931. This was followed by the Second Round Table Conference in 1931. However, no solution to the problem was offered by the British. Hence, the struggle was resumed in the beginning of 1932. 4.4.10 The Revolutionary Movement Revolutionary terrorism as a form of political activity emerged in the 20th century. This was the handiwork of the educated youth who were disillusioned with the activities of the dominant political groups. These youth often resorted to violent activities. An organised form was given to the revolutionary movement with the formation of the Hindustan Republication Association in 1924. The Government began adopting repressive measures. Many association members were arrested. Revolutionaries involved in the Kakori conspiracy case case in 1925 were tried. Chandra Shekhar Azad fought through Hindustan Socialist Republican Association. Bhagat Singh, Raj Guru, Sukh Dev, Ramprasad Bismil and Batukeshwar Dutt were Fig: 4.17 Bhagat Singh some of the noted revolutionary activists of 1920's. However, the revolutionaries failed to achieve any concrete results. Their movement was a short lived one. It was suppressed by the British Government. However, they proved to be a great source of inspiration to the youth of India. 4.4.11 Emergence of Communist and Socialist Groups The years 1920's witnessed the emergence of communist and socialist groups in the Indian politics. Many associations of students and the youth were organised all over India. Many youth conferences were held between 1928-1929. The youth were much influenced by the socialistic ideologies. It became popular at the time of great depression in 1930. The Congress Socialist Party was founded in 1934 and the Communist Party was reorganised after 190
1935. The Socialist Party was led by Acharya Narendra Dev and Jai Prakash Narayan. Mid 1920’s also witnessed the emergence of Subhash Chandra Bose as a powerful left wing leader of the Congress. 4.4.12 Jawaharlal Nehru as a Socialist Jawaharlal Nehru emerged as a symbol of socialist and socialist ideas in India after 1929. He organized vigorous tour of the country and began spreading socialistic ideologies among people. In his opinion mere political freedom would be meaningful. He was one of the committed socialists that India had ever come across. Fig: 4.18 Jawaharlal Nehru 4.4.13 Impact on Congress The growth of the radical forces in the country did influence the programmes and polices of the Congress. On the directive of Nehru, the Karachi session of the congress passed the resolution of Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy. It reiterated the socialistic ideology of Nehru. Later in 1945 the Congress working committee passed a resolution favouring the abolition of landlordism. In 1938, under the presidentship of Subhash Chandra Bose, the congress set up the National Planning Commission under Jawarharlal Nehru. One of the major developments of 1930's was the increasing acceptance of radical economic policies of Gandhiji. the principle "Land to the Fig: 4.19 Subash Chandrabose tiller" emerged during this period. It was declared in 1942 that " the land belongs to those who will work on it and to no one else". 4.5 TOWARDS FREEDOM The Nationalist Movement began gaining momentum day by day and by 1937 almost all sections of the masses began participating in the struggle for freedom. In 1935, the Government of India Act was passed and elections were held in 1937. The congress swept the polls in most 191
Fig: 4.20 Sarojini Naidu Fig: 4.21 Annie Besant Fig: 4.22 Sucheta Kripalani of the states and formed the ministries. In Assam and North-Western provinces a coalition government was formed. The second world war began on 1st September, 1939. The British declared war on Germany on behalf of India without consulting the Congress ministers and Central Legislature. The congress objected to it. As a protest, the Congress ministers offered resignation in 1939. In 1940, in the labore session of the Congress, the Muslim League under Jinnah demanded separate Muslim State of Pakistan. In order to solve Indian deadlock, the Governor General Lord Linlithgow declared his Angust offer in 1940. It was not accepted by the Congress leaders. Under the leadership of Gandhi individual Satyagraha on a non-violent basis was started. Many were arrested. At this time Japan entered the world was and declared war on Britain. To secure the co-operation of the Indians, the British government announced the constitution of the Cripps Mission to negotiate with the Indian leaders. But the negotiations did not materialise. The Indians were no longer prepared to wait for a long time. They were preapred for the final assault on British imperialism. 4.5.1 Quit India Movement (1942) The Congress resolved to adopt a policy of effective opposition to the British Government. On July 14, 1942 the working committee of the Congress passed the "Quit India Resolution". It was followed by lawlessness in the country. Gandhi asked the people to "Do or Die". He said, " We shall either free India or die in the attempt; we shall not live to see the perpetuation of our slavery". On 9th August, 1942 Gandhi was arrested by the Government. there were hartals and strikes every where. The angry people took to violence. Many died in police firing. Mean while, Subash Chandra Bose left from Germany and Japan in 1943 and organised "Azad Hind Fouz" with the help of war prisoners. He wanted to drive out the British with the assistance of Japan. But his attempt was a failure. Japan was defeated by the allies in 1945. Subhash Chandra Bose was said to have been killed in an aeroplane accident. 4.5.2 Indian Independence (1947) Soon after the conclusion of the Second World War there was rebellion in the Royal Indian Navy and Air force. These revolts forced the British government to think that it was not possible for them to continue in India without the assistance and co-operation of the navy and airforce. In 1946, the labour party with C.R.Atlee as Prime Minister, formed the Government in 192
England. He sent a Cabinet Mission to India for an early transfer of power. It failed due to the demand for a separate Muslim State. An interim Government was formed with Jawaharlal Nehru as the Prime Minister. The Muslim league started direct action on August 16th to secure Pakistan. The communal riots broke out throughout the country. Many were killed in the riots. Under this circumstances, on February 20th 1947 Atlee announced the transfer of power to the Indians not later than June, 1948. Lord Mountabtten, the Viceroy, prepared a plan for the division of India. On the basis of the plan, the Indian Independence Act of 1947 was passed. It created the dominions of India and Pakistan, each with a Constituent Assembly and a Governor General. On 15th August, 1947 India was divided into two independent states to India and Pakistan. Thus ended the British colonialism in India for which the Indians fought for a long time. 4.6 SUMMARY Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the founder of Brahmo Samaj was a great scholar who preached the principles of Oneness of God, universal brotherhood and fought against Sati, and other social evils. Arya Samaj worked for social equality through tis slogan "Back to Vedas" and Shuddhi movement. Thesophical Society revived the ideal fo universal Hinduism Ramakrishna Mission recognized the truth in all regligious and upheld the utility of image worship. Sir Sayyed Ahmed Khan worked towards the amelioration of Muslim subjects. He established the Aligarah College in 1875 which later emerged as a great centre of the Islamic reform movement. The work of reformers against prevailing rigid caste system and untouchability resulted in the inter caste marriages, inter-dining, modern conception of equality, application of uniform laws to all citizens and passage of caste Disabilities Act in 1850. The first was of Independence, fought in 1857, indicated that the Indians were no longer prepared to live in servitude. The failure of the movement revealed the weakness of the Indians. It was not an end of it. Indian intelligentsia began organising a new movement based on the programme of prayer and petition. As time passed one section of this group began adopting different method. This group of people were called the extremists or the militants. The British Government continued with its repressive methods. Under Mahatma Gandhi, the struggle for freedom became a mass movement. His strategy was based on Ahimsa and non-violence. He organised non-co-operation movement, Swadeshi movement and Civil Disobedience movement. In this unit, you read about the planning and execution of various programmes of the Congress. The movement was slowly developed towards the goal of Indian Independence. The Communist and Socialist groups worked towards the achievement of economic and political freedom. During this period the peasants and the workers formed Indian Kisan Sabha and the All India Tade Union Congress. Through these organizations they got their grievances redressed. Finally, the struggle of the Indian people combined with the world scenario forced the British to grant independence on 15th August 1947. 193
4.7 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Check your progress answers-I 1. Casteless Society, One God and brotherwood. 2. Satya Shodak Samaj in 1873. Check your progress answers-II 1. The first war of Indian Independence. 4.8 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS I. Answer the following in about 30 lines. 1. Write briefly about the causes and results of the rebellion of 1857. 2. Give an account of the objectives and methods of the Moderates and Extremists. 3. Explain the course of National Movement between 1942 and 1947 II. Answer the following in about 15 lines each. 1. Give a brief account of Swadeshi Movements 2. Write a note on civil Disobedience Movement. 3. Explain the role of Socialists in the National Movement. 4.9 FURTHER READINGS 1. Bipin Chandra: Nationalism and Colonialism in Modern India, Sangam Books, 1996. 2. Kuppu Swamy, B: Social change in India, South Asia Books, . 3. Desai, A.R.: Social Background of Indian Nationalism, SAGE Publications, 2016. 4. Natarajan, S: A Century of Social Reform in India, Mittal Publications, 2004. 5. Daya Agarwal: Jyothi Rao Phule, National Book Trust, 1996. ***** 194
BLOCK-II: POST INDEPENDENT INDIA AND DEVELOPMENTS The path of Moderanization in Indian Society evolved through restructuring Indian society through reforms. Indian National Movement represented Indian people’s urge to be free from foreign yoke. The first phase of it started with the Revolt of 1857 and passed through several stages ultimately ended with India wining freedom in 1947. Independent India adopted its own constitution and democratic form of governance and economy. India underwent changes due to 1991 economic reforms. The problems persist in society such as Caste, Religion, Gender descriminating sections of society inspite of several legal provisions. The present block deals with the aspects of Indian Constitution, polity and Governance, Economic Reforms and Contemporary courses in society. The present Block consists of the following units; Unit-5: Constitutional Development Unit-6: Indian Polity and Governance Unit-7: Indian Economy and Reforms Unit-8: Contemporary Concerns and Issues. 195
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UNIT-5: CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Contents 5.0 Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The main governing principles of constitution 5.3 Historical Development 5.3.1 Background to the evolution of the Constitution during the British Period 5.4 Important Aspects of Indian Constitution 5.4.1 Longest written Constitution 5.4.2 Unique blend of rigidity and flexibility 5.4.3 India as a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic and Republic 5.4.4 Parliamentary System of Government 5.4.5 Single Citizenship 5.4.6 Independent and Intergrated Judicial System 5.4.7 Cooperative Federalism is an Integral Feature 5.5 Administrative Evolution During Early Colonial Period 5.6 Important Features of Indian Constitution 5.6.1 Federal Structure 5.6.2 Sovereign Democratic Republic 5.6.3 Secular State 5.6.4 Separation of Powers 5.6.5 Fundamental Rights 5.6.6 Directive Principles of State Policy 5.6.7 Fundamental Duties 5.7 Summary 5.8 Model Answers to Check Your Progress 5.9 Model Examination Questions 5.10 Further Readings 5.0 OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to; l Define the principles of constitution l Elucidate historical perspective of Indian constitution 197
l Describe the main features of Indian constitutional law l Explain the main objectives of Indian constitution 5.1 INTRODUCTION Constitution is the key instrument for any country which facilitates the division of authority which is founded on the basis of civilized administration leading to the establishment of modern world. On the other hand any constitution tries to build up a framework for administrative structure with the help of certain essential characteristics. Although a few common features are reflected in most of the constitutions and there are other few which vary from state to state. These variations are related to the varying political contexts that determine the characteristics of the constitution. Similarly the Indian constitution is not an exemption. In addition to that it has evolved certain unique essential principles. 5.2 THE MAIN PRINCIPLES OF CONSTITUTION A focused study of the Indian constitution will prevail upon that there are at least eight major principles which are embedded in it and which broadly form the foundations of democratic political system in India. These are: a. Sovereignty b. Secularism c. Socialism d. Fundamental Rights e. Directive Principles of State Policy f. Centralism g. Cabinet Administration h. Independent Judiciary 5.3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT The British Colonial rule has come to an end on August 15, 1947 paving way to transfer of power to two sovereign states namely India and Pakistan. Indian constitution came into effect on 26 January 1950. The complex task of drawing up a constitution that would balance the needs of a complex, diverse society brimming with unbridled hope and enthusiasm is always a difficult task. Indian constitution incorporated various aspirations that were part of the freedom struggle. The task of drawing up the constitution was taken up by the Drafting Committee which was elected by the Constituent Assembly on 29August 1947 and held its first meeting on 30 August 1947. The Drafting Committee was in session for 141 days. In total the Constituent assembly debated and approved the constitution in two years, eleven months and seventeen days. The first draft of the constitution had 315 articles and 8 schedules and by the time it was placed before the Constituent Assembly for approval it consisted of 395 Articles and 8 Schedules. After a total 2473 amendments, today it consists of 448 articles 198
Fig 5.1: Babu Rajendraprasad with Dr.B.R. Ambedkar divided into 22 parts and 12 schedules and has been amended 101 times. The most recent was the amendment that passed the Goods and Service Tax Act (GST). Subsequently on 26th January 1950, India has adopted a constitution and declared as a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic and Republic nation. 5.3.1 Background to the evolution of constitution during the British period India has witnessed several European countries visiting and engaging themselves for the purposes of business and subsequently establishing political rule in India. Such European countries include Dutch, French, British and Portuguese. All these have become rivals for the purpose of business. In 16th century Britishers have come to India under the name of the East India Company as traders. Later the Britishers established political power by defeating all the political and business rivals by a unique policy of conquest, annexation and consolidation in India. Though in the initial stages they were much concentrating on trade and commerce later they took active interest in the political matters of India. Especially the death of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707 has helped Britishers to establish imperial rule in India. The establishment of colonial rule became evident after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 defeating Siraj-ud-Daulah, Nawab of Bengal. The Battle of Buxar in 1764 and Annexation of Punjab region in 1849 marks the complete establishment of British rule in India. This was continued further throughout 19th century by the British through different systems of treates and alliances with the Princely States of India in the name of East India Company. 19th Century has witnessed the introduction of certain measures of constitutional reforms which manifested in the Regulating Act of 1773 and Pitts India Act of 1784 introduced by Warren Hastings. 5.4 IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION 5.4.1 Longest written constitution: The constitution of India is said to be the longest written constitution in the world because, it contains: l Separate provisions for states and centre and their inter-relationship. 199
Fig 5.2: Preamble of Constitution l The adopted provisions from several sources and several other constitutions in the world. l Separate provisions for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, women, children, and backward regions. l Protects Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties, Directive Principles of State Policy along with other administrative process. 5.4.2 Unique blend of rigidity and flexibility Our Constitution is neither rigid nor flexible. It is a fine blend of both. l While certain parts can be amended by ordinary law making procedure, the more important changes require 2/3 majority. Fundamental Changes require a change to be passed by 2/ 3 majority and passed by a majority of the States. Only then they can be presented to the President for assent. 5.4.3 India as a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic and Republic l The preamble clearly elucidates the nature of our constitution: it is a republic that will be governed at the will of the people with representative elected on universal adult franchise and based on rule of law. l India is a sovereign nation. It means it is independent and is free from its internal and external pressures. l As a secular country it recognizes all religions equally without having any state religion. 200
Fig 5.3: Constitution of India l India is a republic meaning that head of the state (President) is elected one and not hereditary like monarchy. 5.4.4 Parliamentary System of Government India has a parliamentary system that functions through the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. The President appoints the Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers. 5.4.5 Single Citizenship Unlike Federation, where citizen enjoys dual citizenship of both State and Union, India has a single citizenship provided by the union and recognized by all the states across India. 5.4.6 Independent and Integrated Judicial System The judiciary system is kept free from the influence of the executive and the legislature. Separation of powers is an integral part of the constitution. As an integrated system, India has the Supreme Court as the apex court below which High Courts come. The High Courts in turn supervise the lower courts. 5.4.7 Cooperative Federalism is an Integral Feature India is an indestructible Union with destructible states means it acquires a unitary character during the time of emergency. Hence, some experts say it as a quasi federal in nature. The Union and Centre have clearly separated powers in the Seventh Schedule comprising of the Union List which deals with the powers of the Central Government, a State List that devolves 201
power to the States and a Concurrent list, which is administered jointly by the Union and States. The powers of the Central government will be supreme in case of a conflict between the Central and State laws. 5.5 ADMINISTRATIVE EVOLUTION DURING EARLY COLONIAL PERIOD During the Colonial period, the East India Company's administration was undertaken on the basis of various Charter Acts. Under this, the British Parliament gave a Charter to the East India Company which administered territories on behalf of the crown. The East India Company then administered its territories based on various administrative decisions. During the period, the two major administrative developments were the Regulating Act (1773) and Pitts India Act (1784). Charter Act of 1793 The first of the many Charter acts and under this the company's commercial privileges were extended for a further period of twenty years. The special powers of Lord Cornwallis to override his council were not extended. It affected changes in the Home Government. Charter Act of 1813 The major issue that the act had to deal with was if the East India Company's (EIC) monopoly was to be extended the English traders demanded a share of Indian trade to compensate for the losses they suffered due to Napoleon's Continental system that blockaded British trade with Continental Europe. EIC was deprived of its commercial monopoly but the monopoly of China trade and trade in Tea was continued. Charter Act of 1833 Before the time of the renewal of Charter great changes had taken place in Great Britain. The onset of Industrial Revolution, the attendant need for an ever expanded market for finished goods and raw materials added to the importance of colonies, especially large ones like India. The ascendancy of Whigs to power in 1830 paved the way for the triumph of liberal principles, Laissez Faire was accepted as the principle of government's attitude towards industrial enterprise. The liberal movement resulted in the Reform Act of 1832. Though there were a number of demands in parliament for the crown to take over the administration of India, the EIC was allowed to continue the administration of India. All this was a prelude to the appointment of the Secretary of State for India. The Directors of the Company were to act as expert advisers to the President of the Board of Control. The Charter Act of 1833 centralized the Indian administration and the Governor-General of Bengal was now made the Governor-General of India. The Governor-General in Council was empowered to superintend, control and direct both the civil and military affairs of the Company. The presidencies of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras along with other territories of the company were placed under the control of the Governor General in Council and all revenues that were raised placed under the fullest control of the Governor General in Council. All administrative and financial policies (or matters or transactions) were centralized in the hands of the Governor-General in Council. Increased powers were given to the Law Member. 202
A Law Commission was formed for the purpose of consolidating, codifying and improving the Indian Laws. Before the Charter Act of 1833 there was much confusion in the administration of law and justice as there were diverse laws of conflicting nature in force. The laws passed by the Governor-General in Council were to be enforced by all law courts in British Indian territories. The Governor-General in Council was also empowered to amend, repeal or otherwise modify laws passed hitherto before as also make laws for all the servants of the Company, whether residing within the Company's territories or in the territories under the native Princes in alliance with the Company. The Governor General in council had full control related to Military conduct, code, discipline, articles of war as well as all related aspects. One of the most important provisions of the Charter Act of 1833 was that it removed the distinction between Indians and the natural born subjects of the British Crown residing in India and no one would be disqualified for any place in the Company's service by reason of his religion, place of birth, descent, or colour. It abolished slavery. Charter Act of 1853 As the time of the renewal of the Charter was approaching, a demand was voiced that the parallel arrangements in England for the administration of the Company through a Board of Control and a Court of Directors should be abolished as it was both cumbersome and wasteful, and often led to unnecessary delay. There was increased demand by the presidencies of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras for the appointment of a Secretary of State for Indian with a council to deal with increasingly important matters related to India. The Act renewed the authority of the Company and allowed it to retain possession of its Indian territories until the parliament decides the future course. An important aspect was that there was no specific time was allotted to the company to retain its powers and authority unlike in the past. The powers of the Governor General's council were to be the same as followed by the British parliament. The Executive Council's power was expanded and given the right to veto a bill passed. Charter Act of 1858 The Charter Act of 1858 was introduced in the shadow of the revolt of 1857-58. The revolt was used as an opportunity and the company was divested of the authority of various territories. The Act laid down that "India shall be governed by and in the name of the sovereign through one of the Secretaries of State (namely Secretary of State for India) assisted by a Council of 15 members". The Secretary of State for India was to exercise all powers so long exercised by the Court of Directors and the Board of control. In this way the Double Government, i.e., the control of the Company by the Court of Directors and the Board of Control as introduced by Pitt's India Act, 1784 was abolished. The Indian administration was now permitted to enact laws in place of the previous instance when it could only pass regulations. The Governor General of Bengal was now given the designation of Governor General of India. The Madras and the Bombay Councils were no longer permitted to enact any legislative measure. Other Acts Among the two important acts passed between 1793 and 1858 were (a) the Regulating Act of 1773 and (b) Pitts India Act. There were other important administrative measures including Land Revenue Settlements among others. 203
Regulating Act (1773) The Context of this Act was the dire financial position of the East India Company. It faced large amount of pressure due to the large payments that it had to pay to the government to maintain its monopoly. It had to pay about 4 lakh Pounds sterling to the government. This was aggravated by the losses suffered by the East India Company in America trade, especially in its tea exports. By the Regulating Act, the East India Company limited its dividends, restricted the term of the directors and prohibited the servants of the Company from engaging in 'private trade', accepting presents or bribes from the Indian rulers and princes. Further, it changed the designation of Governor of Bengal to Governor-General of Bengal. An Executive Council of four members were to assist him. Pitts India Act (1784) The East India Company Act, 1784 or the Pitt's India Act passed by the Parliament of Great Britain was to overcome the problems and gaps in the Regulating Act of 1773. It tried to streamline the administration of India by restricting the number of Privy Counsellors and a Board presided over by the president who effectively became the minister of the affairs of the East India Company. It reduced the number of governing council of the Company to three members. The administrative framework established by the Act continued with minor changes till 1858. Indian Councils Act (1909) The promise of the Colonial government for self-government and teach Indians the art of "self-governance" led to demand among the educated Indian for a larger role in governance of India. The reforms were also an attempt to placate the educated Indians who were unhappy with the impact of Lord Curzon's reforms, especially the Partition of Bengal. This led to the passing of the Indian Councils Act which is frequently referred to as Minto-Morley Reforms (1909). The main architects were John Morley, the Secretary of State for India and the Earl of Minto, Gilbert Elliot, the Viceroy of India. They believed a softer approach was necessary to reduce the discontent of India. Main Features of the Act 1. It offered elections of Indians to various legislative councils, albeit on a limited number of Indians. Majority of these were to be appointees by the British administrators in India. 2. It introduced the principal of electoral parliamentary system. 3. It conceded the demands of the Muslim League for Separate Electorates ("Communal Electorates) stipulated at 25 percent of the Indian population. 4. Members of the Legislative Councils were divided into four categories: a. Ex-officio members which included the Governor General, members of their Executive councils b. Nominated Official Members who were nominated by the Governor General and were government officials, c. Nominated Non-official members who were nominated by the Governor General but not government officials. 204
d. Elected members who were elected through restricted franchise based on income criteria. 5. The total number of members excluding ex officio members in the Legislative Council was increased to 60. 6. The maximum number of nominated members was increased to 50. 7. Official members were to form a majority but in the provinces non-official members would be in a majority. 8. The members could only discuss budgets, suggest amendments and vote on certain items that were routine in nature. On the more important items they could not vote. Government of India Act (1919) This is commonly known as Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and came into effect on 23 December 1919. The Act was passed in the hope that a further promise of expanding participation of Indians in the government would halt the momentum that Gandhian agitations were increasingly attracting in different parts of the country. The act was a product of the reforms recommended by the then Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu and the then Viceroy of India, Lord Chelmsford. A lasting legacy of the reforms was that it is believed to have introduced "Diarchy" or a dual form of government. It promised increased powers to representatives elected by the people. The most important feature was the introduction of a dual form of government or Diarchy for the major provinces. Under the provisions of the Act, there were to be two lists of subjects in the administration: (a) reserved list and (b) transferred list. The reserved list would be under the control of the Viceroy and included subjects like military, foreign and communications affairs. The transferred list would be under the representatives led by a council of ministers answerable to the Provincial Council. The scope of the provincial councils was enlarged and included agriculture, supervision of local government, health and education. Important departments like revenue were under the control of the Viceroy. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged and it became a bicameral legislature for all India. The lower house was the Legislative Assembly with 144 members, of which 104 were elected and 40 were nominated, with a tenure of three years. The upper house was the Rajya Sabha ("Council of States"), consisting of 34 elected and 26 nominated members, with a tenure of five years. Main features of the Act 1. The British promised a gradual introduction of responsible Government of India though the provisions were loaded in favour of the Viceroy. 2. Introduced Diarchy at the provincial level. 3. The Central Legislature was transformed to a bicameral one. The lower house was the Legislative Assembly (145 members with three year term) while the Upper House was the Council of State (60 members with five year term). 4. No bill of the legislature could be deemed to have been passed unless it was permitted by the Governor General. 205
5. The Governor General could however enact a bill without the assent of the legislature. 6. Establishment of a Public Service Commission for India 7. The Act would be reviewed after 10 years. 8. Communal Representation was extended to the Sikhs, Europeans and Anglo-Indians. 9. The suffrage would be limited and restricted only to those who paid certain minimum "Tax" to the government. Only those who had property, taxable income and paid land revenue of at least Rs.3000 were entitled to vote. It was estimated that in 1920 only 9 lakhs of India's population were entitled to vote for the lower house while in the case of the Upper house it was 17,364. 10. Legislatures had limited financial powers. They could vote only on one-third of the items. Simon Commission (1930) The upsurge in nationalism and the success of the Non Cooperation Movement forced the government to appoint a committee in 1927 under the Chairmanship of Sir John Simon which included Clement Attlee. The committee would review the working of the Act of 1919. Appointment of this committee would also fulfill a statutory provision of the Act of 1919 to examine its effect and operation. The main objective of the Simon Commission was to announce Dominion Status for India after consultation with the major political parties. The Commission's visit to India in 1928 was greeted by strikes and protests. In one such protest on 30 October 1928 in Lahore, LalaLajpat Rai was critically injured and succumbed to his injuries. The Commission proposed the following: l Abolition of Diarchy l Expansion of constitutional reform by the establishment of representative government in the provinces. l Retention and continuation of the separate electorates based on religion, which are referred to "Communal Award" because the two major communities in India (Hindus and Muslims) were unable to come to an agreement. A consequence of the Simon Commission is that it hastened further constitutional reform through the passing of the Government of India Act, 1935. Government of India Act (1935) The Government of India Act, 1935 is considered to be an important legislation in India's constitutional evolution. At the time of its passage it was claimed as the longest legislation ever passed by the British Parliament. It consisted of 321 sections and ten schedules. The Viceroy of India was Lord Linlithgow. The Act incorporated a number of recommendations made by the Simon Commission and the Third Round Table Conference. It is an important Act in the legislative history of India because it is often considered to be the basis for the Indian Constitution. The 1935 Act gave Indian leaders a good overview of the problems, issues and constraints that the adoption of legislative activity can face in India. The Act did not have a preamble which was uncommon for British Acts at that time. There was ambiguity about the concept of dominion status. 206
The Act of 1935 proposed a unitary structure and prescribed a Federation by considering the Provinces and Indian States as units. It claimed that the Indian states were free to join the federation. An important aspect was the Separation of Burma from India and the introduction of separate provisions for the administration of Burma. It introduced bicameral legislature at the centre called Central Assembly (Lower House) and a Committee of States (Upper House). The Central Assembly consisted of a total 375 members of which 250 were elected by the provinces and the 125 Indian states. The Committee of States consisted of 260 member of whom 150 were elected from the British Provinces and the rest nominated by the rulers of the Indian States. Among the nominated members 6 were nominated by the Governor General. An important feature of the act was the abolition of Dyarchy in the provinces and its introduction at the Centre. The executive authority of the centre was vested in the Governor General on behalf of the crown. The Secretary of State for India in England would control the administration of India through the Governor General/Viceroy. The Viceroy would control the most important parts of the administration including Finance, Defence, Foreign Affairs, and the British Indian Army apart from making all the key appointments in the Reserve Bank of India and the Railways. In matters others than those reserved subjects, the Governor General was to act on the advice of the 'Council of Ministers' who were responsible to the Legislature. Essentially, the Governor General had a veto. Apart from this, in 'reserved' subjects, the Crown had a veto. In six of the largest provinces, the Legislature was Bicameral comprising of a Legilsative Assembly and a Legislative Council. In the rest of the provinces the Legislature was unicameral. The Act also introduced Diarchy system at the centre. It has listed subjects into three categories namely Central list (59 subjects) Central Subjects which are further divided into reserved and the transferred subjects, Regional list (54 subjects) and, Concurrent list (36 subjects). The subjects not covered under the above lists were residuary subjects under the Governor General. The legislative assembly was the lower chamber and the members of it were to be elected every five years. Governor was the executive head of the province. Notwithstanding the introduction of provincial autonomy, the Act retained control of the Central government over the provinces since it provided for administration 'in his discretion' or in the 'exercise of his individual judgment' The Cripps Mission (1942) Under the leadership of Sir Stafford Cripps, the Great Britain sent the mission to India to provide some proposals to Indian people. A few of them were: a. After the second World War India would be granted dominion status. b. An elected body would be set up to frame the Indian Constitution. c. The states of India would be made a party in the constitutional making body. d. The Indian provinces were given a right to finalize their constitution in consultation with British Government and are extended freedom to join Indian union. 207
India would remain under the control of Her Majesty's government. These proposals were rejected by all the sections of the country on different grounds including major political parties like Indian National Congress, Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha and Sikhs. Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) The British Government approved to appoint cabinet mission plan to initiate the process of constitutional development. The major proposals of the cabinet mission plan were: a. To form union of India comprising of Indian States and British Provinces. b. Forming a Constituent Assembly having 389 members and c. Interim government will be formed with 14 representatives of all major political parties. In the beginning Congress accepted but Muslim League rejected and observed 'Direct Action Day' on August 16, 1946 under the leadership of Md. Ali Zinnah which led to Hindu- Muslims riots in various parts of country. As this was continued the conflict between Congress and Muslim League further aggravated. As a result of this Lord Mountbatten proposed a plan to divide India into two parts, India and Pakistan and was accepted by the two major political parties. Accordingly the British Indian Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act on July 18, 1947. And ultimately on August 15, 1947 India became an independent state. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. Pitts India Act was passed by ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2. The Chairman of Simon Commission. .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 5.6 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF INDIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 5.6.1 Federal Structure Article 1 of Indian Constitution emphasizes "India i.e., Bharat shall be a union of states". India is a Federal State. A federal state means (a) there are two sets of governments with distribution of powers between the two, (b) a written constitution which is supreme law of the land and (c) an independent judiciary is established to interpret the constitution and resolve the disputes between the centre and states. With all these essential features a significant unitary feature is emergency provisions which are attached to Indian government making more powerful at times of emergency. As enunciated by K.C. Weare "a system of government which is a quasi-federal a unitary state with the subsidiary unitary features". Dr.B.R.Ambedkar said, "the political system adopted in the constitution could be both unitary as well as federal according to 208
the requirement of the time and circumstances". Based on these statements we can understand that India has a "cooperative federalism" with central guidance and state compliance. 5.6.2 Sovereign Democratic Republic In the Preamble, the constitution declares that India a 'Sovereign', 'Democratic', 'Republic'. It means that unlike the preceding Acts, Indian constitution is not a gift of the British Parliament. Rather, it is a document that is a product of the aspirations of Indian people. It is a democracy that is elected by universal adult suffrage without communal franchise, which means that it is a country that is governed by the people for the people. Universal adult suffrage means elected by all adult males and females have the right to vote to elect their leaders. It is a part of the British Commonwealth without acknowledging the allegiance to the crown. India is governed by an elected President as the head of the state in which all offices including the President are open to all citizens of the Country. 5.6.3 Secular State India is the land of many religions. Accordingly the founding fathers of the constitution thought it appropriate to make it a secular state. As it is defined a secular state is neither religious nor irreligious or anti-religious. India's concept of secularism means that it protects all religions equally and does not itself profess a state religion. Articles 25-28 guarantee to each individual freedom to profess, practice and propagate religion, assure strict implementation on the part of the State and its institutions towards all religions. The secular fabric of the country is part of the 'Basic Structure of the Constitution' which cannot be changed. 5.6.4 Separation of Powers An important feature of the Indian Constitution is its emphasis on the separation of powers and the independence of the Judiciary. Parliament has the power to make the laws, the Executive implements these laws while it is the task of the Judiciary to interpret and protect the constitution. 5.6.5 Fundamental Rights Prof.H.J.Laski stated that "a state is known by the rights it maintains". Fundamental Rights are enshrined in Part III of our constitution (Article 12 to 35). They are the soul of the constitution. The basic aim of these is ensure that all citizens can live with dignity and without fear, without interference against basic human rights by the institutions of the state subject to certain reasonable restrictions. A number of Supreme Court decisions have reinforced the meaning of fundamental rights. They need to approach holistically and are not distinct and mutually exclusive. Each one of them reinforces and strengthens the other. In other words, one right does not override the other nor can the rights of one individual infringe on the rights of another. Accordingly the constitution of India provides the basic principle that every citizen is entitled to enjoy certain basic rights, extension to these Part III of Indian constitution enshrined these rights as fundamental rights. Initially there were seven categories of rights but now it is restricted to six after the Right to Property was repealed (withdrawn) by the 44th Amendment in 1978. These are: i. Right to equality (14 -18) ii. Right to freedom (19-22) iii. Right against exploitation (23 -24) 209
iv. Right to freedom of religion (25 - 31) v. Cultural and educational rights (29 - 30) vi. Right to constitutional remedies (32 - 35) Right to property under article 31 was originally a fundamental right now being omitted by the 44th amendment act in 1978 and it became a constitutional right under 300A which declares that "persons shall not be deprived of property save by authority of law".Supreme Court has also ruled that Right to Dignity and Right to Privacy are fundamental Rights. Fundamental rights are justiciable and one individual can approach the judiciary if these are violated. However these fundamental rights are not absolute and can be restricted in view of the security reasons of the state. 5.6.6 Directive Principles of State Policy A unique feature of the constitution is that a chapter is devoted to these directive principles of state policy. These are directives to the government to implement in establishing social and economic democracy. In other words, they are humanitarian principles that attempt to bring to the forefront the socialist aspects of the constitution. They are built into the constitution on the assumption that they enable citizens to be better. The important principles embodied under these are like adequate means of livelihood, equal pay for both men and women, distribution of wealth so as to subserve the common goal, free and compulsory primary education, right to work, public assistance in case of old age, unemployment, sickness and disablement, the organization of village panchayats, special care to the economically backward sections of the country. These are made to make India a welfare state. Though these are not justiciable, meaning that they cannot be enforced in a court of law on the same principles as fundamental rights, but are fundamental in the governance of the country but the State shall take these into consideration when making laws. Most of the welfare laws in the country are created on the basis of these principles. These include laws related to labour welfare, minimum wages, maternity benefits, those related to livelihood, working conditions, cooperative societies and free legal aid among others are examples of these. 5.6.7 Fundamental Duties Fundamental Duties fall within the scope of Part IV-A of the constitution as part of the Forty Second Amendment in 1976. They were incorporated along with Directive Principles of State Policy. These duties are as follows: a) To abide by constitution, respect its ideals, institutions, the national flag and the national anthem b) To cherish and follow the noble ideals c) To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India d) To defend the country by rendering nationalistic services when called upon to do so e) To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic, regional or sectional diversities to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women 210
f) To value and preserve rich heritage of our composite culture g) To protect and improve the natural environments h) To develop scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of enquiry and reform i) To safeguard public property and to abjure violence j) To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that a nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement The main aim including these duties in the constitution is to remind the citizens that while enjoying their rights they should also perform their duties. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. The Preamble of Indian Constitution declare that India is a ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2. 44th Amendment Act in 1978 which right ommited from Fundamental Right. .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 5.7 SUMMARY India is an independent sovereign republic and the powers and authority of sovereign and independent India will be obtained from people. All the citizens of the country are guaranteed social, economic and political justice. The territorial integrity of the republic and its sovereign rights on land, sea and air shall be maintained according to the justice and law of the civilized nations. It maintains secular form of statehood and ensures all the rights, duties are properly extended to the citizens of the nation. All the matters relating to the Federation, Indian parliament, State Legislatures and their respective powers are protected and executed in the spirit of democracy. 5.8 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Check your progress answers-I 1. 1784 2. Sir John Simon Check your progress answers-II 1. India is a “Sovereign, Democratic Republic”. 2. Right to Property under Article-31. 211
5.9 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each. 1. Explain the historical development process of Indian Constitution? 2. Examine the main objects of Indian Constitution? II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each. 1. Explain the main features of Indian Act. 2. Discuss the importance of Government of India Act 1935. 3. Analyse the important Fundamental Rights. 5.10 FURTHER READINGS 1. Ambedkar B.R.: Emancipation of the Untouchables, 1972. 2. Bose, B.N.: The Indian Awakening and Bengal, 1960. 3. Banerjee, A.C.: The Constitution of Free India, 1947. Mittal Publications (1773-1947). 4. Banerjee, A.C: Evolution of the Constitution. History of India (1773-1947). 5. Banerjee, A.C: Cabinet Mission in India, 1946. Sailendranath Sen, 2007. 6. Desai, A.R: Social Background of Indian Nationalism. AR. Desai, 1948. 7. Dube, S.C: Contemporary India and Its Moderanisation. Mittal Publications, 1992. ****** 212
UNIT-6: INDIAN POLITY AND GOVERNANCE Contents 6.0 Objectives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Role of Political Parties 6.2.1 Definition of National Parties 6.2.2 Definition of State Party 6.2.3 Profiles of National Parties in the Country 6.2.3.1 Indian National Congress (INC) 6.2.3.2 Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) 6.2.3.3 Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) 6.2.3.4 Communist Party of India (CPI) 6.2.3.5 Communist Party of India Markist (CPIM) 6.2.3.6 National Communist Party (NCP) 6.2.3.7 All India Trinamool Congress (AITC) 6.3 Nature of Indian Politics 6.4 Emergence of Regional Parties 6.5 Coalition Politics 6.6 Dravidian Movement 6.7 Impact of Socio-Economic Issues on Indian Politics 6.8 Role of Women 6.9 Indian Politics, Prospects and Challenges 6.9.1 Access to Justice 6.9.2 Rule of Law 6.9.3 Empowerment 6.9.4 Employment and Regional Diversity 6.9.5 Criminalization of Politics 6.9.6 Corruption 6.10 Summary 6.11 Model Answers to Check Your Progress 6.12 Model Examination Questions 6.13 Further Readings 213
6.0 OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you should be able to; l Know the definition and nature of National Political politics and state politics. l Explain the role of Women in Indian Politics. l Understand nature of Indian Politics. l Analyse prospects and challenges of Polity and Governance. 6.1 INTRODUCTION Political parties play a pivotal role in Indian Polity. They are integral to the functioning of our democracy and form its backbone. As our country is a multi-party democracy over the past few decades, the importance of political parties has only grown. The basic purpose of a political party is to mobilise people on the basis of a commonality of ideas with the aim of winning a majority of support so as to be elected to the office for which they contest. Once they are elected, they attempt to implement their agenda through legislative means and control of the administration. Though they form the higher layers of any administrative structure in a democracy they are not to be confused with the government. They are only manifestation of the ideas propounded and the ability to mobilise, mould and motivate voters. 6.2. ROLE OF POLITICAL PARTIES The political dynamism of a country is often indicated by the number of political parties that exist. Large number of political parties invariably has the potential to increase the participation of people in the larger democratic process. Indian democracy is based on party based elections held on the basis of universal adult franchise. The leader of the largest single party in the Lok Sabha is usually called by the President to form the government. Hence, any study of the nature of Indian democracy will require an analysis of the nature and role of political parties. The nature of a political party is strictly applied by the Election Commission of India which operates under the authority granted under Article 324 and the Representation of People Act. The Election commission not only conducts the elections but also issues the guidelines/ criteria under the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order 1968 for recognition of political parties as either National, State or Registered Parties. These are reviewed every ten years. The Election Commission has five broad principles that govern registered political parties. These include: 1. Legislative Presence is compulsory for National or State parties. 2. A National Party must have a presence in the Lok Sabha while a State party must have a presence in the State Legislative Assembly. 3. A party can only select members to contest elections on their symbols. 4. A Party that loses recognition will be given some time to try and retrieve its status. However, such parties will not have the same facilities that are extended to others which 214
meet the criteria. These facilities include free time on Doordarshan/All India Radio, free supply of copies of electoral rolls, etc. 5. Recognition will be given only on the basis of its own performance rather than because it is a splinter group of some other recognised party. There are three kinds of political parties in the country. These include (a) National Parties (b) Regional Parties (c) Registered Unrecognised Parties 6.2.1 Definition of National Party Accordingly, a political party will be recognized as a National Party if (i) it secures at least six percent of the valid votes polled in any four or more states at the General Election to the Lok Sabha (or House of People) or to the State Legislative Assembly and (ii) in addition, it wins at least four seats in the Lok Sabha from any state or states or (iii) it wins at least 2% (or 11 seats out of the 543 members) in the Lok Sabha from three different states. 6.2.2 Definition of State Party A party will be recognized a State Party if (i) it secures at least six percent of the valid votes polled in the State at a General election either to the Legislative Assembly or (ii) if it wins at least three percent of the total number of seats in the Legislative Assembly of the State or (iii) at least three seats in the Assembly, which ever is more. 6.2.3 Profile of National Parties in the Country Fig: 6.1 Political Party Symbols As per Election Commission, there are seven national parties in the country. A brief profile of these parties is given below: 215
6.2.3.2 Indian National Congress (INC) Symbol: Hand The Indian National Congress (INC, often called Congress Party) is a broadly based political party in India. Founded in 1885, it was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa. From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, Congress became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement, with over 15 million members and over 70 million participants. Congress led India to independence from Great Britain and powerfully influenced other anti-colonial nationalist movements in the British Empire. 6.2.3.1 Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) Party Symbol: Lotus The Party was originally founded as Jan Sangh (or Bharatiya Jan Sangh) by S.P.Mookherjee and was rechristened as the BJP in 1980. The party is the largest single party in the Sixteenth Lok Sabha that was elected in 2014. The Bharatiya Janata Party is one of the two major political parties in India, along with the Indian National Congress. As of 2018, it is the country's largest political party in terms of representation in the National Parliament and State Assemblies, and it is the world's largest party in terms of primary membership. The BJP is a right-wing party, and its policy has historically reflected Hindu-nationalist positions. It has close ideological and organisational links to the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh. 6.2.3.3 Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) Symbol: Elephant The BSP is the third national party in the country. The party was founded on 14 April 1984 by Kanshi Ram. It was formed to represent the "Bahujans" which includes in its scope those castes referred to as Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes and minorities. The Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) is the third largest national political party in India. It was formed mainly to represent Bahujans (literally meaning "People in majority"), referring to people from the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Castes (OBC), as well as religious minorities that together consist of 85 percent of India's population but still divided into 6000 different castes. 6.2.3.4 Communist Party of India (CPI) Symbol: Ears of Corn and Sickle The CPI is one of the oldest political parties and was formed on 26 December 1925 at the first Party conference in Kanpur. However, an alternative view is that it was formed in Tashkent, then a part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic on 17 October1920. Its goal is to bring about a communist or socialist society in the country. The Communist Party of India (CPI) is based on communist ideology. There are different views on exactly when it was founded. The date maintained as the foundation day by the CPI is 26 December 1925. The Communist Party of India (Marxist), which separated from the CPI, believes it was founded in 1925. 216
6.2.3.5 Communist Party of India (Marxist) Symbol: Sickle The Communist Party of India (Marxist) which is commonly referred to as the CPM was formed after it broke away from the CPI due to ideological differences on 7 November 1964. The ideological differences revolved around their interpretation of Marx's and Lenin's ideas. The CPI(M) was formed at the Seventh Congress of the Communist Party of India held in Calcutta from 31 October to 7 November 1964. As of 2018, CPI(M) is leading the state government in Kerala. It also leads the West Bengal Left Front and Left Front (Tripura). As of 2016, CPI(M) claimed to have 1,048,678 members. The highest body of the party is the Politburo. Its strength in the Lok Sabha has gradually declined in the past 10 years. 6.2.3.6 Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) Symbol: Clock The National Congress Party (NCP) was formed on 25 May 1999 by Sharad Pawar, P.A. Sangma and Tariq Anwar. They were part of the Indian National Congress but were expelled as differences arose on the role of Sonia Gandhi in the party. The party claims to be committed to the ideals of social Justice, secularism, decentralisation and upholding the constitutional principles as enshrined in the preamble of the constitution. 6.2.3.7 All India Trinamool Congress (AITC) Symbol: Jora Ghas Phul. The All India Trinamool Congress (abbreviated AITC, TMC or Trinamool Congress) is an Indian political party based in West Bengal. Founded on 1 January 1998, the party is led by its founder and current Chief Minister of West Bengal Mamata Banerjee. Prior to the 2009 general election it was the sixth largest party in the Lok Sabha with 19 seats; following the 2014 general election, it is currently the fourth largest party in the Lok Sabha with 34 seats. 6.3 NATURE OF INDIAN POLITICS An important aspect of our political landscape is the dominance of individual and usually charismatic leaders in the parties. It is very rare that we have had national parties which have dominated the political landscape without a charismatic leader. Even the Communist Party of India (Marxist) though claiming to be a ideologically driven cadre based party held sway in West Bengal only as long as it was led by a charismatic leader in the personality of Jyothi Basu. In the past seventy years of our electoral history, India has witnessed the rise, decline and rise of a single party dominance. In the years since our independence to the late 1980s, the Indian National Congress held complete sway over the Indian polity. Post 2014 elections, the rise of the BJP is reminiscent of the yester years of the dominance of a single party. Thus, the era of single party dominance can be divided into three different phases. Two of the phases were dominated by the Indian National Congress and the most recent by the BJP. The three phases can be divided as follows 217
1. From Independence to the Year 1971 2. From 1971 to 1991: Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi Era 3. From 2014 to Present: The Rise of BJP A marked feature of the era of one party dominance, including the present phase, is the increased controversy related to undermining of the Federal spirit or cooperative federalism. The last few years and the use of Article 356 which was essentially conceived as an emergency provision that gives the centre administrative and financial powers has been used to further the dominant party's ends. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. Bahujan Samaj Party was founded in the year. ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2. Rashrtiya Janata Dal founded by ..................... .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 6.4 EMERGENCE OF REGIONAL PARTIES As a generalisation, regional parties are political parties that hold sway in one or more pockets in the country. Often, these parties are restricted to one state. Regional parties are not a new or recent phenomenon in the country. Some of them like the National Conference (Jammu and Kashmir) or the Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD) were formed before Independence. SAD was formed in 1920. However, most of these regional parties came up since 1970s with the decline of the Indian National Congress (INC) which dominated the Indian political landscape after independence as it spearheaded the Freedom struggle. Most of these regional parties have limited goals which rarely go beyond the narrow confines of their state, region, language or community. They are usually run based on the whims and fancies of the individual leader who is supreme and whose command is the last word. The immediate family members and relatives invariably wield considerable clout in these parties. The supreme leader, who is often the founder of the party, is usually a charismatic leader or one with substantial grass root support. The rise and self preservation of these parties is based on the ability of the leader to continuously maintain sway over the people to whom they cater. Since the word of the supreme leader is the final command most of these parties lack internal democracy and often hit by squabbles among family members, relatives and friends of the leader jostling for power, patronage and favours. There are times when such internal squabbles 218
have hurt their image, electoral prospects and have even led to split in the parties once they are out of power, death of the leader or disability of the leader to continue to maintain his/her sway on the party. Invariably, the future prospects of these individual oriented parties is directly dependent on their ability to deliver on the promises and more importantly their ability to smoothly transfer the reigns of leadership to the next generation without setting off a split among the successors. The following are some of the important regional parties in the country in the present day. The Samajwadi Party (SP) was established by Mulayam Singh Yadav on 4th October 1992. It is one of the major parties in Uttar Pradesh It claims to believe in democratic socialism, encouragement to agriculture, small and medium industry and opposition to entry of multinationals into the retail sector. The National Conference (NC) has its origins in the 1930. It owes its rise to Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah who was the leader of a discussion group. The discussion group formed itself into the All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference. It later changed its name to All Jammu and Kashmir National Conference and opened its doors to all communities. The Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD) combines political and social activities and is a major grouping in the Sikh Community. Today it is largely confined to Punjab. Its rise is largely due to its successful efforts and ability to bring the Gurudwaras under the authority of the community. It was in the forefront of the agitation to create a separate state of Punjab in the 1960s. In West Bengal, the All India Trinamool Congress (TMC) was established by Mamata Banerjee on 1st January 1998, after it broke away from the Congress (I). It is a party that primarily thrives on the mercurial personality of the leader. In Odisha, the Biju Janata Dal (BJD) was founded in 1997 by Naveen Patnaik, the son of former Chief Minister of the State, Biju Patnaik. The Shiv Sena was formed by Balasaheb Thackeray in 1966 and it came up as a highly parochial organisation that supposedly championed, often violently, the interests of Maharashtrians against outsiders. The All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) and Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) are the regional parties in Tamil Nadu who have displayed the national parties from the political scene of Tamil Nadu for the past 40 years. They have their roots in the Justice Party which was opposed to Brahminism in the state. The Justice Party was founded by E.V.Ramaswamy Naicker better known as Periyar and he started the process that is commonly referred to as the "Tamilisation of Politics" and the creation of a separate state of Tamil Nadu or "Dravidstan". In 1949, C.N.Annadurai, an active member of Justice Party formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam to protest the anti-democratic ways of Periyar. After the death of Annadurai, Karunanidhi emerged as its leader but the party split due to his difference with M.G.Ramachandran (MGR), a popular film star. In October 1972, MGR started Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazghagam (ADMK). After the death of MGR in 1987, J. Jayalalitha assumed the mantle of the party and led it till her death in 2017. 219
Telugu Desam Party (TDP) In Andhra Pradesh and Telengana too regional parties have held sway since the establishment of the Telugu Desam Party by Vetaran Film Actor N.T.Rama Rao (popularly referred to as NTR) in 1982. The Telugu Desam Party ruled the erstwhile united State of Andhra Pradesh for about 15 years under the leadership of N. Chandrababu Naidu till 2014. After the division of the State into Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, TDP is ruling in the newly formed State of Andhra Pradesh. Telengana Rashtra Samithi (TRS) In 2001, the Telengana Rashtra Samithi (TRS) was formed by K.Chandrasekhara Rao (popularly referred to as KCR). He spearheaded the agitation for more than a decade the formation of a separate state ostensibly to fight the discrimination and exploitation of the region by 'settlers' as people from other regions of Andhra Pradesh are referred. The agitation for seperate State culminated into the formation of Telangana on June 2nd 2014. TRS won the elections and ruling the State. 6.5 COALITION POLITICS The rise of regional parties was largely responsible for the decline of the single party dominance. This invariably had to the flourishing of regional parties. A net result of the rise of regional parties and the decline of single party dominance is that it has led to the increasingly important role for coalition parties. Unlike the pre-1990s single party dominance, a discernible feature is that in the present, the success of a single party is largely dependent on its ability to successfully create an alliance that can deliver the votes during the elections. Hence, unlike the past, it is coalition politics that is leading to the rise of a single party dominance rather than a political party rising to dominance on its own strength which was the case in the past. Since the 1989 General elections India has always had a coalition government at the Centre. The difference lay in the number of seats that the single largest party or the dominant partner got in the elections. 6.6 DRAVIDIAN MOVEMENT The Dravidian Movement or the Self Respect Movement is often referred to as Dravidian Nationalism. It played an important part in shaping the politics of Tamil Nadu. It refers to the idea that became popular between the 1930s and the 1970s which culminated in a series of agitations against the imposition of Hindi by parties ruling at the centre. It contends that South Indians form a separate and unique cultural entity with a completely different identity compared to that of the North Indians, which they claim is largely a society built around Brahmanical organisation of society. They claim that Sanskrit is alien to the Southern People. The early Dravidian Movement was led by E.V.Ramasamy Naicker who was popularly known as Periyar. He demanded that the four South Indian states should be an independent country. It emphasised on self respect, anti-Brahmanism, social reform and women's equality. 6.7 IMPACT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES ON INDIAN POLITICS India's democracy is dictated by various socio-economic issues and other interests that play an important role in the election process. India has often been criticised for the role that 220
identity politics plays in its democratic process. However, democracy is the manifestation of people's will and hence any symbolism about the role that identity plays need not always be considered to be a manifestation of backwardness or the "lack of development". Thus, in Modern day India is common for political parties to use various types of identities as part of their efforts to attract voters. Caste Caste is an important factor in Indian society and politics. The importance of caste is reinforced by caste and related social networks and it has often been an integral part of political mobilisation. Caste networks often help mobilisation of voters and facilitate the organisation structure of the parties. Caste is a reality that most parties will not acknowledge but will not its role. The result of mobilisation is that increasingly politics seems to be. Religion Since 1992 Ramjanambhoomi-Babri Masjid issue religion has emerged as an important tool to mobilise public opinion for various political parties. While political parties like BJP and Shiv Sena believe in mobilising people of Maharasthra on the sons of soil in region based plank. Parties like Muslim League and other regional parties like All India Majlis-e-Ittehad-ul Muslimeen (AIMIM) claim that their programmes attempt to work for the upliftment and development of Muslims. Region and Regional Disparities Political parties frequently whip up regional passions as part of their political mobilisation. This is not a new phenomenon. The partition of the country on the basis of the 'two nation theory' combined the whipping up of religious or regional passions. Various political parties tend to build their programmes on injustice to their region and an alternative discourse that promises regional development. Parties such as TDP, TRS, Asom Gana Parishad, Biju Janata Dal are examples of such parties that have built their programme and have successfully mobilised voters on these grounds. Language In various parts of the country, mobilisation on the basis of language and related identities forms an important component of the mobilisation process. The rise of such linguistic identities was common in the country and led to the linguistic reorganisation of states on the basis of language in the 1950s and 1960s. 6.8 ROLE OF WOMEN Women have played an important part in the Indian National Movement and the fight for independence. They were not only active participants but we have a number of important women leaders who rose to become important administrators after Independence. Annie Besant, Sarojini Naidu and Vijayalakshmi Pandit are well known and need no introduction. The fact that women participated in large numbers despite the constraint of social practices like Purdah, low levels of female literacy and other restrictions speaks about the importance and contribution. Women's 221
participation started with the Swadeshi Movement against the partition of Bengal (1904-07), increased with Home Rule League and grew rapidly with the Non-Cooperation Movement to peak with the Quit India Movement. Large scale participation of women was the norm in various annual sessions of the Indian National Congress. Women participated in the movements through two parallel processes without compromising on domestic values, handling families when men folk were participating or even arrested. They formed associations such as Womens India Association (1917) and All India Women’s Conference to carryout various programmes. Home Rule Movement Home Rule Movement was the first movement that was started by a woman in our long struggle for independence. It took its inspiration from the Irish Home Rule Movement and the increased dis-satisfaction with the Government of India Reforms of 1909. It was led by Annie Besant whose own Irish origins and support for the Irish Home Rule Movement was an inspiration. The movement had limited goals and called for the organisation of a national alliance of different groups across India to demand self government or "Home Rule" within the British Empire. Annie Besant had played an important role in the readmission of Extremists into the Indian National Congress (INC). The Home Rule League and the INC cooperation during the "Home Rule League" movement led to the signing of the "Lucknow Pact" between the INC and the Home Rule League. The pact put forth the minimum joint demand and self government was put forth as an immediate aim. They did not call for independence. The movement fizzled out with the arrest of Annie Besant in 1917. Quit India Quit India Movement had the most significant participation of women. Their role became all the more important since almost all the leaders of the INC were arrested as soon as the movement was announced. In most of the villages, women played an important role in organising "Self Defence" units which helped mobilise women in rural areas. So it was left to the women to take forward the movement in most of the regions. The important leaders included Sucheta Kriplani, ArunaAsaf Ali and others. Among the other prominent leaders who played an important part in Revolutionary Movement included Kalpana Dutt and Kamal Dasgupta in Calcutta, Lakshmi Sahgal, in-charge of the Rani Jhansi Women's regiment which was a part of the Indian National Army founded by Subhas Chandra Bose. Post Independence Period Thanks to the encouragement given to the role of women in the independence movement, women have played an important part in India's political life in the post-independence period. Since our Independence, women have not only led India's political parties but have served as Prime Minister, President as well as Chief Ministers of a number of states. Apart from Indira Gandhi who served as the President of the Congress Party and the Prime Minister of India the other important women leaders in the country include, Mayawati who served as the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh in the past, Late J.Jayalalitha served as the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu for three terms (till her death), the present incumbent and second term Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee in West Bengal, Vasundha Raje Scindia the present chief minister of Rajasthan and 222
former Chief Ministers like Mehabooba Mufti (Jammu and Kashmir) and Sheela Dixit (Delhi). Pratibha Patil served as President of India and Meir Kumar and Sumithra served as Speakers of Lok Subha. 6.9 INDIAN POLITICS: PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES 6.9.1 Access to Justice Access to justice is based upon the basic principle that people should be able to rely upon correct application of law. In actual practice there are several countervailing factors. Some citizens do not know their rights, and cannot afford legal aid to advocate on their behalf. A related aspect is fairness of access as some people involved in the legal proceedings and large number of criminal prosecutions are not voluntary participants. The most severe challenge to complexity of adjudication as legal proceedings are lengthy and costly and the judiciary lacks personal and logistics to deal with these matters. Systematic solutions are, therefore, needed for strengthening access to justice. At the same time adhoc measures are required to provide immediate assistance to the needy citizens. 6.9.2 Rule of Law The concept of Governance is undoubtedly linked with the citizen's right of life, liberty and pursuit of happiness. This could secure in a democracy only through the rule of law. The rule of law is expressed through the axiom that no one is above the law. It is under this framework that rule of law not only guarantees the liberty of the citizens that it also limits the arbitrariness of the government and thereby it makes government more articulate in decision making. The rule of law as Dicey postulated is equality before law. This is secured through formal and procedural justice which makes independent judiciary a very vital instrument of governance. In our constitutional system every person is entitled to equality before law and equal protection under the law. No person can be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law. Thus the state is bound to protect the life and liberty of every human being. 6.9.3 Empowerment An empowering approach to poverty reduction needs to be based on the conviction that poor people have to be both the object of development programmes and principle agency for development. Our experience shows that when poor people are associated with public programs, they have consistently demonstrated their intelligence and competence in using public funds wisely and effectively. Our constitution is committed to two different set of principles that have a decisive bearing on equality. First, the principle of equal opportunities to all and the second, the principle of redress of educational and social backwardness. Social and political climate has radically changed in the country from what it was in 1950 or at present. The state continues to have a leading say in transformation of society to make it just and equal. The question is, not only of the extent to what reservation in government employment can really change things for the better, but it could, in order to benefit the socially, educationally and economically backward people. 223
One of the advantages of affirmative action has been improvement in the distribution of opportunities among the Dalits and Backward classes. Ordinary children of poor and lower status parents get lower level jobs and consequently lower salaries and income the reservation of jobs at all levels has ensured that the children of dalits and backward class parents are selected for All-India services like the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) and the Indian Police Service (IPS). The advantage, however, has not as yet percolated to the entire community of poorer and lower status parents. In providing these protectionist regulations in government employment no special care was taken for the poor students since the constitution only recognized "educational and social backwardness", and not economic backwardness as a norm to be applied in formulation of preferential policies in government employment. 6.9.4 EMPLOYMENT AND REGIONAL DIVERSITY Abraham Lincoln stated his speech in the house that 'United states could not endure half slave and half free. It would become all one thing or all the other- all free or all slave'. We are at a level of economic development where India's southern and western states have enormously developed in economic and educational terms while the northern and eastern states are lagging behind. The level of frustration on account of this disparity is becoming evident in the speed of naxalism and insurgency. India cannot have for long time co-existence between California and Sudan for either we will have all California or all Sudan. It is true that the nation state is deeply concerned about this phenomenon but it is only through the quality of governance in northern and eastern states combined with high level of investment that regional disparity could be bridged. Generation of employment among the youth in rural areas in northern and eastern states could be the catalyst. 6.9.5 Criminalization of Politics Indian politics has been witnessing that criminals have nexus to polities. It further gave scope for criminals becoming the party members and later contesting in the elections. These trends have deteriorated the culture of politics and muscle power and money started dictating terms to the policy makers. This is leading to lot of scams and we have been witnessing some of Chief ministers are convicted and punished. 6.9.6 Corruption The high level of corruption in India has been widely perceived as a major obstacle in improving the quality of governance. While human greed is obviously a driver of corruption it is the structural incentives and poor enforcement system to punish the corrupt that have contributed to the rising curve of graft in India. The complex and non transparent system of command and control, monopoly of the government as a service provider, underdeveloped legal framework, lack of information and weak notion of citizens rights have provided incentives for corruption in India. A conscious programme for strengthening of public awareness and also empowering the existing anti-corruption agencies would be required. The statutory right to information has been 224
one of the most significant reforms in public administration. The Right to Information Act provides a strong national frame work within which public awareness programmes could take place. Corruption takes place within a frame. 6.10 SUMMARY India's democracy is at the centre of governance. It creates opportunities, sustain leadership and generates hope. Good governance being central to the Indian democratic experience could be seen more clearly when we look at what is happening in our part of the world. The major shifts in India's national value system made impact both on the administration as well as the intellectual buildup of the civil service, the police and the judiciary. It is widely appreciated that good governance is dependent not nearly upon good policy advice but more importantly on the processes and incentives to design and implement good policies themselves. Dysfunctional and ineffective public institutions or increasingly seem to be at the heart of the economic development challenge. Misguided resource allocations, excessive government interventions, and widespread corruption have helped in participation of poverty. The weak institutions of governance make an adverse impact on the service delivery. Poverty reduction depends on improvements in the quality and timely delivery of services to poor people of basic education, health, potable water and other social infrastructure requirements. The concept and practice of good governance in a country demands that there should be constructive mechanism and procedures that will enable the three principles actors, i.e. government, market, civil society, to play in correct and to supplement each other's capability. Innovations are taking place in the government in the market and in the civil society. Social and political processes are getting increasingly inter linked changing the character of the elites in the country side. The nature and content of good governance would undergo changes in terms with rising expectations fresh demands of the people. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. All India Trinomool Congress (TMC) established by ................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2. The founder of the Justice Party was .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 225
6.11 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGESS Check your progress answers-I 1. On 14th April, 1984. 2. Lalu Prasad Yadav. Check your progress answers-II 1. Mamata Bannerjee 2. E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker. 6.12 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each. 1. Explain the role of political parties in India? 2. Critically examine the causes for the emergence of Regional parties. 3. Illustrate the major challenges for the Nationa development? II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each. 1. Discuss the role of Women in Indian National Movements. 2. Analyse the Dravidian Movement in South India. 3. Explain the Home Rule Movement. 6.13 FURTHER READINGS 1. Cheema, G.Shabbir and Dennis a Rondinelli, "Decentralization and development policy implementation in developing countries", Beverly Hills, sage publications, 1983, Palgrave, 2016. 2. Diamond Larry, "Promoting Democracy in the 1990's: Actors and Instruments Issues and Imperatives", Report to the Carnegi Commission on preventing deadly conflict, December, 1995. 3. Committee of Experts on Public Administration, definition of basic concepts and terminologies in governance and public administration, New York, 2006. Dorling Kindersley, 2008. 4. United Nations-Economic and Social Council, 5th January, 2006. 5. Manmohan Singh, Ex.Prime Minister of India's article entitle 'we're off to a good start' in the Times of India, New Delhi, dated.25.10.2007. 6. A World Bank, Governance, Washington DC, 1993. A World Bank, 1993. 7. Re-examining Democracy: Essays in Honour of Seymour Martin Lipset, SAGE Publication, 1992. 8. The Challenges of Good Governance in India, in the era of 21st Century, Dr. K.C. Tiwari. ***** 226
UNIT-7: INDIAN ECONOMY AND REFORMS Contents 7.0 Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Indian Society and Pre-Colonial Economic Development 7.3 Indian Economy under Colonial Rule 7.3.1 Permanent Settlement 7.3.2 East India Company 7.3.3 Impact of Colonial Rule 7.4 Post-Independent Indian Economy 7.4.1 Agriculture Sector 7.4.2 Planning Era 7.5 Economic Reforms of 1991: Context 7.5.1 Fiscal Stabilization 7.5.2 Industrial Policy 7.5.3 Financial Sector Reforms 7.5.4 Trade Policy 7.5.5 Public Sector Policy 7.5.6 Tax Reforms 7.6 Performance of the Economy Post Reforms 7.7 The nature of India's economic growth 7.8 Summary 7.9 Model Answers to Check Your Progress 7.10 Model Examinaation Questions 7.11 Further Readings 7.0 OBJECTIVES After Studying this Unit, you should be able to; l Learn the Indian economy in Colonial Rule. l Examine the Impact of Colonial Rule. l Discuss the Indian economy in Post-Independence India. l Analyse the Government Policy for economic development. 227
7.1 INTRODUCTION The Indian National Movement was the most deeply and firmly rooted in an understanding of the nature and character of colonial economic domination and exploitation. Early leaders, known as Moderates, were the first in 19th century to develop an economic critique of colonialism. In the economic realm, Britain, the emerging industrial gaint of the world, was expected to develop India’s productive forces through the introduction of Modern Sciences and technology and capitalist economic organisation. Colonialism was the main obstacle to Indian’s economic development and the essence of British imperialism lay in the subordination of the Indian economy to the British economy. 7.2 INDIAN SOCIETY AND PRE-COLONIAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT The economy of Indian subcontinent before the advent of British was a village based, subsistence oriented and barter economy to a large extent. The division of labour prodution of goods and services was organised on caste lines. Each caste is strictly assigned a specific occupation and no vertical mobility was allowed. While this perhaps brought stability, but it hampered mobility and growth. That's why it had extremely skillful craftsmen producing textiles, gems and jewelry, spices and traders specialized in long distance trade with Middle East and Europe. Arabian horses, guns, gunners etc were imported for exchange of spices, and textiles on one hand, while lower rung of society lived in misery. Compared to other countries, however, the development in the subcontinent was reasonably high. Yet the socially divided subcontinent could not make its journey towards modernity when Europe was beginning to develop industrialisation. The country transport systems, like everywhere else, were poor due to poor road connectivity. The degree of monetization was limited. The East India Company besides its trade had a standing army, kept lending military support to various kings, accumulated lot of wealth in the process of trade and military operations, became the most powerful force economically and militarily. The Industrial Revolution in England, which was financed through these riches, in turn made the British much more powerful. The policies of the British, like taxation, transportation, in land waterways, etc had one hand led to commercialization and development of a market society, and an impoverished economy in terms of income on the other helped to transfer wealth, seek cheap raw materials and enrichment. While the nature of the economy and society underwent some change, economy then is made amenable to serve the interests of the Raj. Only after getting Independence, India got an opportunity to develop its own economy, which we shall discuss in the following sections. 7.3 INDIAN ECONOMY UNDER COLONIAL RULE The Colonial rule in India has established by the end of Buxur wars in Bengal in 1757 and Carnatic wars in 1763 in South. The East India Company that has brought entire Indian subcontinent from Afghanistan in the west to Burma in the East and from Kashmir in north to Sri Lanka in south into one nation, albeit a colonial one, by 1756. The Company rule had extended its rule for the next hundred years until The Great Revolt of 1857, after which India is passed 228
into the hands of direct control of the British Crown. The Company’s economic policy needs to be discussed with respect to agriculture, taxation and trade. Agriculture was the sector in which 86 percent of population directly depended in India, and secondly about the handlooms on which 14 percent of workforce depended. The land administration under the Company rule was such about 40 percent the country was under indirect rule of princely states and the rest under direct rule of the former. With an eye on maximizing the land revenue, all land is divided into two segments. First segment was given to various zamindars, who were mostly erstwhile Mansabdars under Mughal administration, under Permanent Settlement (mostly in Bengal and Madras Presidencies). These Zamindars were made official owners of several number of villages under their command from which they collect revenue as rent, remitted a specified amount to the British and retained the rest. They were also given wide ranging powers to tax, control and rule. The second segment of land is given to individuals as farmers under Ryotwari settlements, who would pay land taxes directly to the British. These two revenue systems have played havoc with the Indian farmers by charging excessive rents and taxes. 7.3.1 Permanent Settlement The Permanent Settlement system created a class of rapacious intermediaries who had fleeced the farmers by creating further layers of middlemen and extracting rents. This has almost created a feudal system which pushed the actual tillers into the vortex of debt through extraction by the moneylenders and absentee landlords. Even Ryotwari settlement created another kind of absentee landlords who extracted high rents. The inflexible system of taxes collected in terms of cash led a forced process of commercialization in which the farmers were forced to raise cash crops such as opium, Blue (Indigo), cotton, jute to pay taxes. But the falling prices them pushed into deep indebtedness. The Colonial rule experienced frequent famines which were direct result of the stringent land tax in different parts of Indian subcontinent during 18th and 19th centuries. Its tax policies imposed a forceful commercialization process compelling farmers to produce non-food crops such as opium, cotton, indigo and sugarcane, integrate India with global markets which had not only seriously reduced the food security but also increased role of traders and middlemen. 7.3.2 East India Company The East India Company initially bought the Indian cotton calico from handlooms and sold it in England and Europe, which encouraged investment in textiles in 18th century. But as the Industrial Revolution in England became successful since 1750 and Manchester cotton mills began producing cotton clothing, the Company began discouraging Indian calico by imposing heavy export duties. This has led to a widespread `deindustrialization' of cotton textiles in Bengal. The Company started encouraging export of raw cotton and cotton yarn, which made the raw material cost of Indian handloom expensive, which finally reduced its prospects. However, there is a merchant class of Indian origin like Tatas, Birlas, Srirams, Dalmias, Zaveries, etc who 229
got an opportunity to invest in industry during the period of First World War and Second World War, who have accumulated profits by trading opium, cotton, indigo and jute by trading with the British Companies. Because of war, the supplies between England and India were affected and Indian companies were encouraged to invest in production of cotton mills, jute mills, steel mills, etc. Thus a small class of Indian entrepreneurs began to emerge around the colonial cities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. These cities which have grown as industrial cities continued to keep the lead in the post-Independent period too. 7.3.3 Impact of Colonial Rule The net impact of colonial rule, in spite of creation of a small and weak industrial class, is conclusively negative. According to nationalist like Dadabhai Nauroji in 1928 and also by Patnaik and Jomo (2006), who had estimated the net drain of wealth from India which annually contributed 10 percent of Britain's national income for a period of a century. The drain of wealth was in the form of five times higher salaries to British personnel in army and administration, import duties and capital flight through exchange rate depreciation of rupee against pound sterling. Industrial capitalism in England is substantially financed by drain from colonies like India, besides becoming major markets for its industrial commodities. The relative prices of Indian exports mostly that of agricultural goods were depressed, while industrial goods prices imported from England were inflated. As a whole, the colonial rule has debilitated India's economy by constantly squeezing its economy of its wealth, making India a food insufficient economy and destroying India's ability to grow as an industrial power. The national income growth during 1900-47 remained 1.02 percent, which is below the population growth of 1.45 percent. Thus the colonial economy, on hand commercialized, the growth potential of the country was pushed back by a century. 7.4 POST-INDEPENDENT INDIAN ECONOMY India received its Independence after a prolonged nationalist struggle and under an altered external environment of weakened British Imperialism after the Second World War, which enabled a host of colonial countries to gain independence. The economic policy of the post-Independent India is a result of diverse class configuration of the Congress party, which led the nationalist struggle. Congress party had the patronage of industrialists, landed aristocrats, small peasantry, newly educated professions like lawyers, doctors, civil servants etc, and also workers in traditional as well as modern industries. It's membership also was drawn from wide spectrum of social groups and castes. From an ideological point of view, it had Gandhians, Socialists, Communists, right wingers as well as advocates of capitalism. Hence Congress Party itself became a representative of wide ranging social and economic interests which were often conflicting. There were broadly two models of economic development, pure market-led capitalist model with liberal democracy on one hand and a planned egalitarian socialist command economy on the other. Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, the then towering personality in the Congress leadership, adopted a pragmatic economic model of development where private capitalists will coexist with public sector and the state to address the issues of poverty, inequality, employment and growth through its various policy instruments. This was broadly described as 230
`mixed economy' which has both features of capitalism as well as socialism, at least in rhetoric. 7.4.1 Agriculture Sector The economic conditions of the times were that 75 percent of work force was dependent on agriculture, 12 percent on industry and 13 percent on service sector. The partition of the country had left 14 percent of its extremely fertile soils that were producing wheat, rice and jute have gone to Pakistan, leaving India dependent on imports. The infrastructure of the country in terms of ports, railway tracks, roads, communication and electricity were at the barest minimum. Much of agricultural land was still under Zamindars. Thus initial pillars of economic strategy of planning rested on implementation of land reforms which were expected to raise the food grain output, set free the debt-burdened peasantry from the clutches of landlords and moneylenders; public sector to lead the investment in infrastructure like railways, roads, communication, mining, ports, power and transport and basic goods like iron, steel, cement, etc. The consumer goods were left for the private goods manufacturers. The state, through its planning and administrative machinery, would allocate the state resources, headed by the civil servants. The financial resources were to be raised from directly taxing the rich, industrial, and trading and salaried classes; and indirectly the consumers. Imports were to be financed by foreign aid and limited export earnings. The scarce foreign exchange resources would be rationed among various private and public sectors entities for financing the imports on regulatory framework. The power of decision making on different areas of the economy such as agriculture, industry, business, electricity, railways, post and telegraphs, mines and geology, etc were allocated between States and Centre. A quasi-federal framework of the tax revenues sharing between states and Centre was developed, along with special grants for different development activities were to be given to states. However, Centre retained substantial economic and administrative powers on the economy. Banking sector was nationalized in 1969 to make desired resource allocation. The overall objectives of the economy were to rapidly modernize and industrialise the economy, reduce disparities, reduce poverty, increase national income, increase employment and achieve self-reliance. 7.4.2 Planning Era These policies were followed broadly during 1950-2017, which is referred as Planning Era. The achievements of this period needs to be viewed in accordance with the times. In terms of growth of the economy, economy grew at 3.5 percent during 1950-80 and at 5.6 percent during 1981-91. Though it could not achieve the target growth rate of 5 percent in the first three decades, but eventually in the fourth decade it managed to surpass. The increased population growth imposed a far greater challenge for the country, which was a natural phenomenon of development. The Western capitalist economies could export their populations to its colonies, which India cannot do the same. Population growth is often mistaken as an unnatural one, while economic development will result in initial population growth and would fall at later stages. In spite of this hurdle, India could increase its per capita income at an annual rate of 1.5 percent for 30 years, which is many more times higher than growth during the colonial period. And by 1980s, Indian economy had a per capita growth of 3.8 percent. 231
Indian Planning Commission - Five Year Plans Plan Year Significance 1st Five Year Plan 1951-1956 Agriculture Sector. 2nd Five Year Plan 1956-1961 Rapid Industrialisation. 3rd Five Year Plan 1961-1966 Self relient and self generating economy. 4th Five Year Plan 1969-1974 Growth with stability. 5th Five Year Plan 1974-1979 Poverty Alleviation and Self relliance. 6th Five Year Plan 1980-1985 Modernisation of Technology. 7th Five Year Plan 1985-1989 Food, work and production. 8th Five Year Plan 1992-1997 Fiscal and Economic Reforms. 9th Five Year Plan 1997-2002 Growth with social Justice & Equality. 10th Five Year Plan 2002-2007 Monitorable target or Key indicators of development. 11th Five Year Plan 2007-2012 Towards faster and more inclusive Growth. 12th Five Year Plan 2012-2017 More inclusive and Sustainable Growth. The agricultural sector has undergone significant change. During 1950s, all forms of intermediaies like Zamindaries were abolished. This had cleared the sector the major feudal sections who were squeezing the peasantry. However, the land was transferred only to the `recorded tenants' leaving out actual tenants. Attempts to implement land ceilings in beginning of 1970s proved to unsuccessful in identifying surplus lands and distribute to the landless. Government partially succeeded in distributing the uncultivable waste lands and common lands to some extent. To overcome the problem of food production, in the sixties, Green Revolution technology was introduced for wheat and rice. Along with a host of supportive policies such as bank credit, irrigation, power, fertilizer subsidies and agricultural extension were introduced. As a result the food grain production has increased from 55 million tons in 1950 to 127 million tons in 1974.It has achieved food grain self-sufficiency by 1976. Its per capita food grain availability has gone up from 437 gm per day to 478 gm by 1991. Though India did not succeed in eradicating hunger and malnutrition, it managed to avoid famines as it did in past and achieve self-sufficiency. Though the food crisis was overcome quickly, there was a growing agrarian distress during 1960s and 1970s, as evident from quick spread of Naxalbari movement across the country. These, along with growing political dissonance, compelled policy makers to focus on, for the first time, poverty alleviation, as a policy goal. This was also an admission that growth during the first two decades of independence had made little dent into poverty or inequality. "Anti- poverty" programmes are essentially of two types: self-employment programmes to enhance productivity of farms and small businesses by offering subsidized loans from the public sector banking system, 232
and (ii) wage employment programmes for rural agriculture workers. These are supplemented by provision of food grains at controlled prices from the public distribution system. Despite much criticism of these programmes for enormous leakages, these efforts began to dent absolute poverty since the second half of the 1970s, and more so in the 1980s. Also, India's poor planning of education had costed a great deal of misery for the masses to get out of poverty. Indian state invested far too low proportion its resources to education and it continues to do so. The industrial growth achieved was substantial compared to its past. India built a strong industrial base with capacities of indigenous production capability. India has built up a range of industries which included capital goods, intermediate goods, and consumer goods covering all fields like metals, machine tools, chemicals, pharmacueticals, engineering goods, electricals and transport and others. While this can be read as an achievement, India's manufacturing abilities were comparatively weak when compared to other countries like China, Brazil, South Korea, Taiwan, etc, which have built up their industrial economy with far more rigor. India was blamed for following highly regulated regime, controlled bureaucratic power which resulted in corruption, favoritism and inefficiency. The import substitution strategy and protection given to private and public sectors is often blamed to have resulted in inefficient and underdeveloped manufacturing sector on international standards. Indian state also could not raise enough resources for planning due high degree of tax evasion and generation of black income in India. As a soft option, Indian state resorted to deficit financing, which is drawing on an internal debt from the banking system and also raising debt in the international markets. This has made our external payment situation difficult during oil price boom after 1991 Gulf war. This made India approach International Monetary Fund (IMF) to bail out its international payments crisis by lending dollars. IMF imposed conditionalities that India would liberalise its economy, devalue its currency, allow foreign investment, open up its markets, privatize its public sector, reduce its tax rates, reduce government expenditure and throw the economy to unfettered market forces. All areas which were reserved for the public sector were now to be opened for private investors like building national highways, ports, mining, public transport, financial sector etc. Thus, since 1991, India has given up planned strategy of development in substance, even though it officially did not wind up planning commission. These policies are said to accelerate the growth of national income, and make India a competitive economy in the world. India's economic orientation is changed from `growth-with-distribution' to `growth-first trickle-down-later'. 7.5 ECONOMIC REFORMS OF 1991: CONTEXT Since independence, the Indian economy was a planned economy based on the Nehruvian- socialist model of development. In such regime, investment decisions were subject to state regulation and permit, while public sector investment was a subject of bureaucratic discretion. While government disposition was quite favourable to big business, Indian economic policy came under attack by a globally emerging economic ideology called neolibaralism. This doctrine of neoliberalism not only believes in the supremacy of free markets over pueblic sector and regulated economies, but lobbies shifting economic resources and decision making into the hands of private capitalists 233
from public sector. Such policy is argued to improve the economic growth of a nation. Reversing policies of regulation towards unregulated market regime is thus referred as `economic reforms'. The year 1991 was a watershed for the Indian economy, as a series of economic reforms were unleashed by the P.V. Narasimha Rao Government aimed at reducing Government controls over various aspects of the economy, increasing the role of private sector and opening up the economy to trade and foreign investment. However, it should be noted that some reforms had already been initiated by the Rajiv Gandhi government in the mid-1980s by relaxing the licensing controls making it easier for private sectors in some select industries. The reforms of 1991 were not limited to piecemeal adjustments in one or other aspect of policy but was meant to bring about systemic changes affecting several sectors of the economy curtailing the role of the government and widening the role of free market forces. The circumstances that led to reforms, was not sudden but was the result of mismanagement of the economy during the 1980s that created a Balance of Payments crisis with unsustainable current account deficit, large fiscal deficit and accelerating inflation. By 1990-91, fiscal deficit, which measures by how much government expenditure has exceeded the revenue, was almost 9 percent of GDP. The same gory picture was with the case of inflation, which indicates the general rise in prices. By 1990-91, the rate of inflation rose to 10 percent per annum. The Balance of Payments, which shows India's economic transactions with the rest of the world was in highly precarious situation in 1991. The account deficit, indicating the gap between the value of total imports and total exports was 3.2 per cent of GDP in 1990- 91, and as this deficit was financed by external borrowings, the external debt was about 23 percent of GDP in 1990-91. The situation was aggravated due to the Gulf war and by first quarter of 1991 foreign exchange reserves were not adequate enough to cover even a month of imports. This large debt to finance both fiscal and current account deficit resulted in high interest rates payments which rose as high as 3.2 percent of GDP constituting 22 percent of total central government expenditure and eating up about 38 percent of total revenue collection of the central government. Under normal circumstances, such financial crisis would have been manageable through temporary fiscal austerity, import controls and soft loans (loans with low interest rate) from international agencies. However, the circumstances were such that the balance of payments crisis could not resolved as it was difficult to cut essential imports, and sources of soft loans were drying up due to India's huge external debt. Moreover the Gulf war, collapse of the USSR and political instability at home led India to swallow the bitter pill and India contracted a huge loan of 3.6 billion dollars from the International Monetary Fund in June 1991. This loan came packaged with some conditions that India must strive towards fiscal and price stabilization and also structural adjustment of the economy by opening up the economy to the world and loosening government controls. India rolled out its economic reforms under the stewardship of the then finance minister Dr.Manmohan Singh. 234
7.5.1 Fiscal Stabilization The first priority in the reform agenda was to manage the balance of payment crisis, bring down the fiscal deficit and inflation. Macroeconomic stabilization was aimed at achieving low and stable inflation and a sustainable fiscal and balance of payments position. The Indian rupee was devaluated by 18 per cent in two successive steps in July 1991 to encourage exports as Indian goods become cheaper globally. The rupee became fully convertible on current account in 1994 which means that Indian exporters and workers abroad can fully convert their foreign exchange earnings at the market rate. Reducing the fiscal deficit of both the central and state governments became part of the reforms and the government did manage to reduce the deficit in the initial few years at the cost of restricting development and welfare expenditure. However, this could not maintain fiscal consolidation regime as not only revenue collection felt short of the target but the government could not shy away from development, infrastructure and welfare expenditure thus raising the fiscal deficit. In 2003, Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act (FRBM) was passed with the objective to reduce fiscal deficit to 3 percent of GDP by 2008 and eliminate revenue deficit at the same time. 7.5.2 Industrial Policy There were some radical changes in the new industrial policy 1991. Industrial licensing was abolished except for a list of few industries relating to security, strategic or environmental concern. The list of industries reserved for the public sector has been drastically pruned and many critical areas have been opened up to private sector investment. The Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices (MRTP) act which controlled and regulated the expansion and investment of large industrial houses was eliminated. In its place, the government passed the Competition act 2002 which was amended again in 2007. This Competition Act replaced the MRTP act as India's competition policy to enhance the competitiveness of Indian industries by checking abuse of dominant position and predatory pricing by big industries. There has also been a radical restructuring of the policy towards foreign investment. .Earlier, India's policy towards foreign investment was selective and was widely perceived by foreign investors as being unfriendly. The new policy gives automatic approval for direct foreign investment up to 51 percent in equity in a wide range of domestic industries. After the reforms, India has emerged as the second most important destination for foreign direct investment after China. 7.5.3 Financial Sector Reforms Reforms in the financial sector were aimed at mobilising savings efficiently and allocating them in a manner which supports the process of restructuring in the real economy. Several initiatives were taken in the banking sector as well as capital and money markets. Financial sector reforms were carried out based on the report of the 'committee on financial system' (The Narasimham committee). The banking system is also being opened up to competition from new private banks and several new banking licenses have been granted. 235
The Government has also embarked on a major reform of the capital market. Companies are now free to issue capital and price new issues according to market conditions subject only to guidelines aimed at effective disclosure of information necessary for investor protection. More importantly, the capital market has opened up globally for portfolio investments- those investment on stocks, bonds, treasury bills, etc. which are made with the expectation of earning a return on it. Again, India has emerged as one of the favourite destinations for foreign portfolio investment. 7.5.4 Trade Policy The trade policy of 1991 was aimed to cut down administrative controls and barriers which acted as obstacles to free flow of exports and imports. The government therefore decided that essential imports like petroleum, oil and lubricants (POL), fertilizers and edible oil should be protected, while all other imports and exports should be enlarged and liberalised by abolishing the licensing system. The complex import control regime earlier applicable to imports of raw materials, other inputs into production and capital goods has been virtually dismantled. 7.5.5 Public Sector Policy Instead of outright privatisation, during the process of reforms, the Government initiated a limited process ofdisinvestment of Government equity in public sector companies, with Government retaining 51% of the equity and also management control. The disinvestment helps provide non-inflationary resources for the Government Budget, without adding to the fiscal deficit. To improve performance and to maintain a balance between accountability and autonomy, the Government has entered into a 'Memoranda of Understanding' (MOU) with a number of public sector units. 7.5.6 Tax Reforms The tax reforms were spelt out through the Report of the Taxation Reforms Committee headed by Raja Chelliah. The direct tax was restructured with lower rates, fewer slabs, and higher exemption limit and reduced saving-linked tax exemptions. There is now a proposal to replace the existing Income Tax Act of 1961 with the New Direct Tax Code (NDTC) awaiting the approval of the parliament. In the realm of indirect taxes, progressive reduction in the level as well as the range of variation of customs duties and a rationalisation of the domestic excise taxes on industrial production with a switch from specific to ad valorem rates, fewer duty rates and a drastic reduction if not elimination of exemptions. In order to further simplify the indirect tax structure, the value added tax (VAT) was introduced into the Indian taxation system from 1 April 2005. The Government now introduced Goods and Services Tax (GST) aimed to replace all indirect taxes levied on goods and services by the central and state governments. The reforms in the tax system is a continual process with the objective of creating a system which avoids economic distortions, and ensures adequate buoyancy of revenues to support the task of fiscal consolidation and tax administration to realise the full potential of economic reforms. 236
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. Industrial Revolution was broken in ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2. Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act was passed in the year. .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................... 7.6 PERFORMANCE OF THE ECONOMY POST REFORMS Though reforms were ushered in as a result of the balance of payment crisis, many felt that it was a long overdue need for the Indian economy. The agenda of the reforms was that it would launch India into a trajectory of sustainable high growth rate, with stable inflation and efficient fiscal management. That growth would have a trickle-down effect even to the lowest strata of the society and uplift the poorest of the poor from poverty. However, over the post reforms period that initial optimism has not really succeeded as the growth and performance of the Indian economy shows a mixed picture. The growth rate of real GDP, which indicates the growth of national income adjusted for changes in the price level during the period 1950-80 was a mere 3.5 percent. This period reflects the pre reforms era where planning played a huge role. However, during the next period of 1981- 91, the growth rate of real GDP improved to 5.7 percent. Many economists believed that this high growth rate during the 1980s was unsustainable during to growing government expenditure leading to high fiscal deficit, high inflation and widening current account deficit. And this as we have discussed earlier led to the Balance of Payment crisis in 1991.The per capita income gives a very crude measure of the standard of living of the people, during the period 1950-80, the growth rate of real per capita income was a mere 1.4 percent reflecting the dismal growth rate of real GDP during the same period. The per capita growth more than doubled to 3.2 percent during the period of 1981-91. The impact of reforms on the growth of GDP and on important sectors of the economy presents a mixed picture, we shall deal with them briefly. Overall, in the post reform period of 1991 to 2005, the growth rate of GDP is 5.9 percent and that of per capita income is 4.1 percent. Many economists believe that from this period India has launched herself into the trajectory of high growth path. But the enthusiasm of the economy soon dissipated with the 2007 financial crisis. 237
India's economic reforms mostly focus on the financial and industrial sector and completely neglected the agricultural sector. The reforms carried out in other sectors such as rationalising of the financial sector and reducing government expenditure had a negative impact on the agricultural sector. Small and marginal farmers found it difficult to secure loans and credit under the new banking norm. This cumulative effect of declining public investment, non-availability of institutional credit and the collapse of the cooperative credit system eventually led to mounting agrarian crisis and indebtedness of small and marginal farmers which has culminated in the spate of farmers' suicide in large parts of the country in recent years. Coming to the manufacturing sector, one of the objective of reforms was to pull the manufacturing out of the doldrums of low growth and inefficiency to a path of high growth, productive employment, efficient utilisation of resources and a competitive industrial structure. However even with the reforms and the new industrial policy the sector has not grown much. The growth rate of manufacturing has hovered around 5 to 6 percent with the exception of the period 2005-10 when the growth went up to 7.5 percent, which has been reduce to a mere 4.8 percent post the global financial crisis of 2007. The only bright spot in India's economy is the services sector. Even in the pre reforms period, this sector was growing steadily. India continued to depend on the services sectors for its economic growth as it has become a world leader in export of software, business and knowledge process outsourcing and mass communication like mobile connectivity. 7.7 THE NATURE OF INDIA'S ECONOMIC GROWTH The 'inclusive growth' as a strategy of economic development received attention owing to a rising concern that the benefits of economic growth have not been equitably shared.Growth is inclusive when it creates economic opportunities along with ensuring equal access to them. In order to broadly understand the pattern and quality of inclusive growth, we look into the sectorial income contribution to GDP as well as sectorial workforce distribution. The income contribution in real terms or the value added to the total GDP by the three sectors of the economy over the years and the distribution of workforce in each sector of the economy in 2007-08. While discussing economic growth in the Indian context, a distinction between 'organised' and 'unorganised' sector is important. Organised sectors are those industries which are registered and regulated by government laws like the companies and factories act and the workers are organised into trade unions. Unorganised sectors are those industries or activities which are unregistered and not regulated by any government laws and where the worker force is mostly casual labourers without any labour union. Indian economy is dominated by unorganised sector and accounts for about 60 percent of India's GDP although it is also true that the size of the organised sector has been increasing with the reforms. It is also a disquieting fact that the share of wages has been declining over the years and that of the share of profits and income from capital gains has been steadily rising giving the sign that there is rising income inequality under reforms. 238
The reforms which were initiated in 1991 with the hope of giving India a sustainable high growth rate and that positive benefits of reforms would trickle down even to the poorest section of the society. However, with the experience of post reforms India, the benefits of growth and reforms has not spread to all strata of the society. Rather what we see is a peculiar pattern of growth that has not generated productive employment for the masses but has encouraged inequitable distribution of wealth and income at the hands of the few, with the neglect of the masses. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. Taxation Reforms Committee headed by ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2. What is the bright spot in Indian Economy. .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 7.8 SUMMARY The reforms which were initiated in 1991 with the hope of giving India a sustainable high growth rate and that positive benefits of reforms would trickle down even to the poorest section of the society. However, with the experience of post reforms India, the benefits of growth and reforms has not spread to all strata of the society. Rather what we see is a peculiar pattern of growth that has not generated productive employment for the masses but has encouraged inequitable distribution of wealth and income at the hands of the few. with the neglect of the masses. 7.9 MODEL ASWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Check your progress answers-I 1. England 2. 2003 Check your progress answers-II 1. Raja Challaiah 2. Service Sector 7.10 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each. 1. What were the causes that led India to start widespread economic reforms in 1991? 2. Discuss the process of reforms in various sectors of the economy? 239
3. Critically examine the performance and experience of post reforms Indian economy? II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each. 1. Explain the Permanent Settlement. 2. Discuss the Economic Reforms of 1991. 7.11 FURTHER READINGS 1. Palme Dutt, R: India Today, Read Country Book, April 1st 2006. 2. Rajendra Prasad: India Divided, Hind Kitabs Limited, 1947 3. Matthai. J: Village Government in British India, London, T.F. Unwin, Ltd, 1915. 4. Vera Anstey: Economic Development of India, Wiley, March, 1930. 5. Gadgil: Industrial Evolution in India in Recent Times, Oxford University Press, 1929. 6. Ray, S.C.: Land Revenue Administration in India, Cambridge University Press, 1929. ***** 240
UNIT-8: CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS AND ISSUES Contents 8.0 Objectives 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Caste System 8.2.1 British understanding of Caste 8.2.2 Social Reforms against Caste System 8.2.3 Legal Provisions against Caste based Inequalities 8.2.4 Acts that prohibit Caste based discrimination 8.2.5 Protective Discrimination 8.2.5.1 Reservations 8.2.6 Caste and National Integration 8.3 Tribes in India 8.3.1 Problems of Tribes 8.3.2 Constitutional Protections 8.3.3 Laws for the Protection of Tribes 8.4 Religion and Minorities 8.4.1 Minorities 8.4.2 Minorities and Indian State 8.4.3 Problems of Minorities 8.4.4 Protection to Minorities 8.4.5 Secularism 8.5 Women 8.5.1 Issues of Women in India 8.5.2 Gender Discrimination 8.5.3 Violence against Women 8.5.4 Dowry 8.5.5 Health 8.5.6 Economic Status 8.5.7 Harassment at Work Place 8.5.8 Women Trafficking 8.5.9 Constitution and Legal Protection of Women 241
8.5.10 Laws for the Protection of Women 8.6 Summary 8.7 Model Answers to Check Your Progress 8.8 Model Examinaation Questions 8.9 Further Readings 8.0 OBJECTIVES After studying this Unit, you should be able to; l Know the meaning of National Integrity and its necessity for a country l Find out different challenges that pose threat to our national integrity l Different ways to strengthen our unity. 8.1 INTRODUCTION India is a multicultural society. It means our country is a home for diverse cultural communities in terms of caste, religion and ethnicity. Each community follows different language, food, dress, values, customs, traditions. Its diversity some times pose serious challenges for the national integrity. National integration is an emotional feeling of oneness of citizens of a country. In other words,though people belong to different castes,religions, tribes and regions they feel that they were all kith and kin. Such emotional bondage is considered to be a prerequisite for the progress of any country. Therefore, nation building involves two significant aspects: preserving diversity and achieving unity. It is natural to have frictions and tensions when different cultural groups are living side by side in the same location. It is in this context that founding fathers of our constitution aspired for unity in diversity. Experience shows that when difference is projected as a threat, the difference shapes into a rivalry and finally disrupts peace in a country. Therefore, governments makes efforts to develop a sense of belongingness among members of different groups in a country .It is essential on the part of every citizen to develop harmony among themselves in order to build a strong nation.This unit makes you understand issues that threaten the fabric of Indian unity. 8.2 CASTE SYSTEM Caste refer to a system which is an integral part of Hindu social order in which people are divided into different categories on a hierarchical basis.Caste is peculiar to india.Caste system is characterized by endogamy, segregation,a degree of purity and pollution, professional categorization. Its membership is fixed by birth and can never be changed. Caste system justifies inequality of human dignity, socialrank, wealth, etc.Dr.Ambedkar called it a system of graded inequality and today it has become the main source of unrest in India. Though the lines between functions of different castes were blurred over a period of time other features such as endogamy, untouchability, inequality and discrimination are living realities in the social life of India. It has served as an impediment for the human development in India for a long time 242
restricting the social and economic progress in the country. Socially it has prohibited free and independent human interaction on the basis of purity and pollution. It has also crippled the economic progress by not letting the choice of work on human capability but on the basis of caste. This has restricted the economic development of a person despite being skillful in different fields was restricted to only her caste profession. However, this aspect of caste has changed now and there is no bar on professional choice. As humans are social beings the denial of social interaction naturally reduces its ability to learn from others and expand itself.Caste with its rigid social segregation and especially with its inhuman practice of untouchability proved to be an extreme form of denial of human interaction and thus a barrier for social integration. 8.2.1 The British Understanding of caste The colonial administration was interested in understanding the caste, its institutions and practices primarily to develop suitable mechanisms to govern Indians. Their interest also lies in projecting India as a fragmented country with competing interests and did not constitute into an integrated social, cultural, economic and political unit. Thus they have thoroughly used the already existing caste and religious divisions in society to enhance their political interests. However, despite some lopsided interpretations,the contribution of the western scholars should not be undermined for documenting the caste and its implications. 8.2.2 Social Reforms against caste system Realizing the damage done by the caste system to the human fabric of the nation several Bhakti saints including Kabir, Tukaram, Basava, Gnaneswar, Chaitanya, Guru Ravidas, have advocated the human equality against irrational caste practices. In the early modern period Swamy Vivekananda, Rajaram Mohan Roy, Eswar Chandra Vidyasagar, Dayananda Saraswati, Kandukuri Veeresalingam and others have denied the inhuman practices of the caste order and upheld the human equality. Mangu ram in Punjab,Bhagyareddy Varma in Telangana, Kusuma Dharmanna in Andhra Pradesh, Iothee Thaas ,E.V. Ramaswami Naicker in Tamilnadu, Swami Achootananda in North India and Naryana guru and Ayyankali in Kerala have fought for human equality. However the caste system got its death blow from the radical reformers like Mahatma Jyothi Rao Phuley and Dr. B.R.ambedkar who considered caste as an evil without any positive features. Ambedkar argued that abolition of caste is the only solution for a harmonious society. Gandhi fought against untouchability but supported Varnasrama Dharma Caste System - minus its inequalities and discrimination - which was vehemently criticized by Ambedkar as an unreasonable ideal. The impact of British administration has also contributed in two aspects: dilution of caste rigidities as well as the promotion of communalism. Enumeration of census on the basis of caste by the British led to a sudden rise in the caste consciousness and consolidation of caste identity. This has furthered led to the already existing caste rivalries among different social groups. However, the policy of the British towards the lower castes in terms of providing them education, health services and employment, for whatever reasons, considered to be a factor that diluted the disabilities inflicted by the caste. 243
8.2.3 Legal provisions against caste based inequalities The preamble of our constitution ensures equality and justice for all the citizens of India. Caste based discrimination and inequality are prohibited by the Constitution through the following provisions: a. Artcle14 guarantees equality before the law and equal protection of laws. b. Article 15 prohibited descrimination on the growth of religion, caste, sex or place of birth. directs the state to not discriminate any citizen in matters of employment and access to public resources. It also specifically laid down that nothing shall prevent the State. c. Article 16 provided for equality of opportunity in the matter of public employment. d. Article 17 abolishes the practice of untouchability in all forms and hold untouchability. Practice a punishable offence. e. According to article 23 begar and other similar forms of forced labour are prohibited and any contravention of this provision shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law. 8.2.4 Acts that prohibit caste based discrimination To give effect to the above provisions of our Constitution and in order to end the exploitative and discriminatory practices inflicted by the caste system the parliament has enacted certain crucial acts as follows: 1. The Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955, renamed as Protection of Civil Rights Act, in 1976.As per this act practice of untouchability is a punishable offence. 2. To check and deter atrocities against Scheduled Castes and Tribes, the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 has also been enacted. This law is aimed at 1. Prevention of atrocities against members of SC/ST communities 2. Providing Relief and Rehabilitation to the victims of atrocities 3. Delivering speedy justice to the victims of atrocities. 8.2.5 Protective Discrimination Protective discrimination refers to the policy of permitting special privileges to certain downtrodden sections of a society. In India scheduled castes, Scheduled Tribes, Backward classes and differently abled persons are provided with the reservations in education, employment and political positions so that they could be included into the mainstream society. Founding fathers of our Constitution have thought it to be an essential aspect in the process of nation building. They believed that a country suffering from severe inequalities could not become a nation and therefore they thought of providing reservations which could offer a level playing field to the historically marginalized groups. Dr.B.R.Ambedkar the father of the Indian Constitution is credited with the idea of protective discrimination. 8.2.5.1 Reservations Article 330 and 332 providd for reservation of seats for the members of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Parliament and Legislative Assembly of the States. 244
Article 335 enabled the reservation in appointment services and posts under the government for the Scheduled Castes and Tribes. Article 338 envisaged initially a special officer, after the amendment in 1990, the setting up of a National Commission. Article 339 for the Scheduled Areas and the welfare of Scheduled Tribes. 8.2.6 Caste and National Integration Casteism is rooted in the belief that a particular group of people think they are different from other social groups. This way of thinking leads to sectarian tendencies undermining the national interest. A country divided into thousands of competing castes is naturally prone to regular conflicts. Every caste feels suffocation with other castes.This kills the feeling of fraternity which should form the bedrock of nationalism. This apart every caste has its association with some political affiliation. It's a fact that in all walks of life in India caste finds its way. Political parties use caste as a polarizing factor. It is believed that some political parties favour some castes and so is their representation in government positions. It is a fact that today no caste group is ready to be treated as inferior to other castes. The growing levels of consciousness among the downtrodden sections make them challenge this irrational and unscientific social stratification. In view of this Dr.Ambedkar advocated the annihilation of caste to build India into a strong nation. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. The Untouchability (offences) Act-1955 renamed as ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2. The Father of Indian Constition is .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 8.3 TRIBES IN INDIA As per the 2011 census Adivasi or scheduled tribes constitute 8.6% of India's total population. There are about 700 tribal groups living in India. They are highly vulnerable in terms of geographical isolation, poor healthcare facilities, poverty, high illiteracy, standard of living, etc. Different tribes live in forests, hill and plain areas and their occupations include hunting, food gathering and agriculture.India has the second largest tribal population in the world .They are 245
found in all states but more than 80% of the total tribal population is living in Central India. Tribals are of heterogeneous groups and experience high degree of exclusion. They are treated very low and exploited to the core.Their problems can be enumerated as below: 8.3.1 Problems of Tribals 1. Land Alienation: Tribal lands were grabbed and occupied by the British in the begining and later by moneylenders,zamindars and traders. Even today they are forced to leave their habitations for various development projects, mining and highways. 2. Poverty: Most of the tribals live in utter poverty and as their sources of income are very primitive. Their occupations like hunting, food gathering, and agriculture fetch them very little income. They hardly get any surplus with these occupations. They regularly experience vicious circles of poverty. 3. Indebtedness: As a result of poverty they fall prey to the local money lenders for high rate of interests. To repay their loans they mortgage or sell their lands. 4. Health: Poverty leads to malnutrition which causes different health problems. They often suffer from chronic infections and life threatening waterborne diseases. Malaria, dysentery and typhoid are common health problems that tribals face. Due to ignorance Tribals follow superstitions and depend on unscientific methods of health practices. 5. Education: Due to geographical isolation access to education to the tribal children remains a distance dream. Also they do not understand the significance of modern education. Their poverty also does not allow them to opt for education. 8.3.2 Constitutional protections In order to protect the tribals the constitution of India offers protection through the following provisions: Article 14: Equality before the law. Article 15: Special provisions for the advancement of Scheduled Tribes. Article29: Protection of language, culture and other interests of minorities which include tribals also. Article 46: Protects the educational and economic interest of triblas along with that of Dalits. Art. 350 - Right to conserve their language, script or culture. Art. 350 - Instruction in Mother Tongue. Constitution has allotted its 5th and 6th schedules for the self-governance of tribals of North -East india. 8.3.3 Laws for the Protection of Tribes 1. The prevention of atrocities against SC/ST Act is equally applicable to tribals along with that of the SCs. 2. The Forest Rights Act, 2006 provide legal security to its indigenous tribal population from forced eviction and denial of their rights over minor forest produce. 246
3. The provisions of the Panchayats (extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996(1996) for ensuring self-governance. There is a feeling that decades of independence could hardly bring about any change in their conditions. However it's a fact that tribals have made a considerable progress since independence but there is a long way to go. 8.4 RELIGION AND MINORITIES Religion in India is characterised by diverse religious beliefs and practices. India is a multi-religious, multi-language, multi-racial and multi-cultural society. The Indian subcontinent is the birthplace of four major religions of the world: the Hinduism, the Buddhism, the Jainism and the Sikhism. Religion has been an important part of India's culture. Religious diversity and religious tolerance are established by the law and custom in the country. India is also home to around 90 per cent of the global population of Hindus. According to the 2011 census, 79.8 % of the population of India follow Hinduism and 14.2 % follow Islam. The remaining 6 % include Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism and others. Our freedom fighters and national leaders seemed to have considered the diversity as an opportunity and also a challenge because it also gives rise to frictions and conflicts in a society. India has a rich experience of different religions living sided by side for centuries. However it is a fact due to reasons of vested political interests India has seen several communal tensions. Successive governments are working to preserve and cherish the diversity and also achieve integrity. 8.4.1 Minorities The difference between the Minorities and Social Majority can be based on one or more identifiable features like ethnicity, race, religion, disability, gender and wealth or health orientation. The term 'minority group' regularly occurs in the civil rights and collective rights discussions. Generally, members of minority groups are likely to face disadvantages and discrimination. Joe Feagin, a socialogist and social theorist has presented five characteristics to identify minorities: i. suffering discrimination and subordination; ii. Physical and /or cultural traits that set them apart; iii. A shared sense of collective identity and common problems. iv. Socially shared rules; and v. marry within the group. In a multicultural society, exclusive rights are provided for religious, cultural and linguistic minorities for their protection. All constitutions of the world provide rights to their minority communities' .The United Nations Declaration of Minority Rights 1993 advocated the promotion of awareness about the rights of ethnic and linguistic groups as an integral part of the development 8.4.2 Minorities and Indian State The term 'minorities' is not defined in the Constitution. But we understand through the debates of the Constituent Assembly that minorities are the numerically small and vulnerable groups in the power equation. So far India has notified 6 minority communities namely Muslim, Christian, Budhist, Sikh, Parsi and Jain. 247
8.4.3 Problems of Minorities Minorities suffer due to different problems pertaining to their culture, language, traditions. Often the numerically majority groups treats them as 'the other'. Their issues get neglected in liberal democracies as the rule of the majority gets sanctified. The tendencies are such that the majority expects them to get assimilated. But, the Western experience provides a way to deal with the issues of minorities through an ideology called multiculturalism. This ideology advocates coexistence of all cultural groups with note of non-interference. 8.4.4 Protection to Minorities The constitution of India ensures all its citizens- justice, social, economic and political". Articles 25-28 provides religious safeguards to minorities of India. Articles 20 and 30 provide exclusive rights to minorities to protect and preserve their language, script or culture .Though the constitution provides the above rights in practice they get hurdles. There are frequent frictions between different communities for various reasons. 8.4.5 Secularism India is a secular state. All its citizens equally enjoy the fundamental rights through the Constitution. Given its diversity India does not own any particular religion. Secular state is a non-religious state. All religions are equal for the state. It provides religious freedom to every citizen subject to health and public order. Thus though numerically small, minorities do have equal rights through the constitution 8.5 WOMEN AS per the 2011 census of India women constitute 48.5 percentage percent of total Indian population. The alarming gap in the sex ratio ( 1000:940) reveals the negative orientation of our society towards the girl child. It also gets ratified by the low level of women's literacy of 65.46% rate as compared to that of the male,82.14. Thus with all the development indicators falling behind women are considered as another significant vulnerable group. It had been a sad reality that women in all communities get only secondary status.Despite several legal protections their conditions remain pathetic. Inhuman and cruel practices like Sati, Jogini, infant foeticide, dowry ,purdah are the social evils associated with them. Social reformers like Mahtma Jothirao Phuley, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Eswar Chandra Vidya Sagar, Dr.B.R.Ambedkar, E.V.Ramaswami Naicker, Savithri Bai, Pandita Ramadevi have fought for the rights of women. 8.5.1 Issues of Women in India Despite proved capacities beyond men, the cultural ethos and traditional mind set of the society against women remains unjust. Women are treated as weak sex. This gets reflected in all the problems they face. The survival of certain values nurtured by male dominated, patriarchal societies over long period is the main reason for persisting presence of gender based descrimination and violence even today. 248
8.5.2 Gender Discrimination Gender discrimination against women begins even before their birth. In all walks of life- social, economic, political and cultural - this is found. Birth of a girl child is seen as a burden and liability.This leads to a decline in female population. 8.5.3 Violence against women Violence against women and girl child is rampant in the form of sexual assault, rape, abduction, domestic violence, wife beating, naked parades, dowry killings, forced prostitution, financial repression, sadistic tortues, mental harassment and countless other forms. This biased attitude of men is thought to be born from the inhuman traditions and patriarchy. Subjugation and violence of women has a direct effect on their health, employment and participation in socio- economic and political life. 8.5.4 Dowry Dowry’s an amount of money or property the bridegroom demands from the bride at the time of marriage. It has become a menace that there are hardly any marriage that takes place without dowry. Worst position is that, brides are killed for want of more dowry. Though everyone criticizes this uncivilized act in public, hardly anybody denies it in private. 8.5.5 Health The health of Indian women is intrinsically linked to their own status in society. Women suffer from severe nutritional problems and ill health. Particularly reproductive health care and health infrastructure is still inaccessible to certain areas and results in high maternal mortality rates (MMR). Many women in India are under-nourished and experience surgical interventions during deliveries. According to the Economic Survery; Government of India, 2014-2015, tubectomy or the laproscopic sterilizations account for 97.4 percent of the total sterilization operations performed in 2012-13, while male vasectomy operations account for only 2.5 percent. 8.5.6 Economic status As per the tradition men are the natural heirs of the lineage. As such women do not get their share in the parental property. This curtails the economic freedom of women. Though law offers them a share in the parental property often it is found violated. Women play an important role in Indian economy both urban and rural women are engaged in variety of occupation about 80% of women are employed in the unorganised sector, because of illiteracy and lack of skills and training. They got low wages though they put in long hours of work. 8.5.7 Sexual Harassment Sexual Harassment can be defined as any unwelcomed sexual advance, request for sexual favors and other verbal or physical conduct of sexual nature. Hence sexual harassment could be a physical contact and advances, a demand or request for sexual favors, passing 249
sexually ` colored remarks or any other unwelcome physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of sexual nature. In fact, working women most commonly face the backlash of taking up new roles, which hitherto belonged to male domains within patriarchy. They are the victims of sexual harassment at work which is an extension of violence in everyday life and is discriminatory, exploitative, thriving in an atmosphere of threat, terror and reprisal. 8.5.8 Women Trafficking Trafficking refers to recruitment, transportation,etc of human beings by force. Most of the women trafficking takes place for sexual exploitation. Trafficking of women for labour and sexual labour has been happening for ages now. The increased access to different parts of the world has equally increased the trafficking of women, especially of women from the marginalised sections. Money, power, position and tradition play significant role in the trafficking of women. Globalised contexts have witnessed an increased number of incidents of women getting trafficked in the hope of getting work, better wages, and lucrative opportunities. It is a known fact that the majority of the trafficked women are pushed into prostitution. The sexual objectification of women has increased in the globalised world. 8.5.9 Honour Killings ‘Honour’ killing is an act of vengeance resulting in the murder or death of a member of a family or social group, committed by other members, due to the belief of the perpetrators that the victim has brought dishonour to them. Intercaste marriages, inter community marriages are seen as transgression of family honor and continue to lead to ‘honour killings’ of the boy or girl or both. 8.5.10 Constitution and Legal protection for Women Constitution lays down the following provisions exclusively for women. l Articles 14, upholds the equal rights and opportunities in politcal, economic and social spheres. l Article 15, prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex. l Article 23, of the constitution prohibits trafficking in women. l Article 39 directs the state to provide equal means of A) Livelihood for men and women. B) Equal wages for men and women C) The state is required to ensure health and hygiene of women l Maternity relief-article 42 l Reservation of seats in Panchayat Raj and Local bodies -article 243 250
8.5.11 Laws for protection of women. To give effect to the constitutional values our parliament has enacted the following laws: l Maternity Benefit Act, 1861 l Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956 l Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 (Amended in 1986) l Medical treatment of Pregnancy Act, 1971 l The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibited) Act, 1986. l The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987. l Prohibition of Domestic violence Act, 2005 l Supreme Court guidelines in 1997 holding Sexual Harassment was a discrimination and later enacted. The Sexual Harassment of Women at work place. l Nirbhaya Act, 2013 Over a period of time there has been special attention given to the development and protection of women by the successive governments. But the progress of women is going at a slow pace. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer. (b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 1. Article-14 releted to ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 2. Dowry Prohibition Act passed in .......................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 8.6 SUMMARY India is a multicultural society. Each community follows different languages, food, dress, customs, traditions and values. Caste system plays a vital role in the society. Peasants, Tribals, Minorities and Women are facing several problems in the country. The Government of India made certain provision for the downtrodden. Indian Constitution provided safeguards for the downtrodden. Development policies, laws, plans and programs aimed at advancement of these sections in different spheres. Several Acts came into existance for protecting women and tribals. Caste discrimination and other evils led to the backwardness of the country. 251
8.7 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Check your progress answers-I 1. Protection of Civil Right Act. 2. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Check your progress answers-II 1. Equality before the Law. 2. 1961. 8.8 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each. 1. Discuss the Caste System and its impact on Indian Society. 2. Write a note on Gender Discrimination in India. I. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each. 1. Explain the Tribal Problems. 2. Analyse the Minorities Problems. 3. Describe the Women Issues in India. 8.9 FURTHER READINGS 1. Padmini Sen Gupta: The story of Women of India, Indian Book Company, 1947. 2. Kanak Mukherjee: Women’s Emamcipation Movement in India, National Book Centre, 1989. 3. Desai, A.R.: Peasant Struggled in India, Rout Ledge, July 1981. 4. Benerjee, A.C.: Indian Constitutional Documents, Herperides Press, 1757-1945. 5. Benerjee, M: The Constitution of Free India, Das Gupta and Company, 1947. 6. Natarajan, S: Social Problems, Oxford University Press, 1943. ***** 252
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University UG 1st Semester-II (B.A/B.Com/B.Sc) CBCS GENERIC ELECTIVE COMPULSORY COURSE HUMAN SOCIETY AND DEVELOPMENT SYLLABUS Block-I : Indian Society and Social Systems Unit-1 : Human Evolution and Civilization Unit-2 : Evolution of Social Structure, Institutions and Culture Unit-3 : Transition from Medieval to Modern Age Unit-4 : Sociel Reforms and Indian National Movement Block-II : Post Independent India and Development Unit-5 : Constitutional Development Unit-6 : Indian Polity and Governance Unit-7 : Indian Economy and Reforms Unit-8 : Contemporary Concerns and Issues 253
Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES B.A. I YEAR - SEMESTER - 2 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTION PAPER SUBJECT: HUMAN SOCIETY AND DEVELOPMENT COURSE - 2: GENERIC ELECTIVE - I Time: 1 1/2 Hours [Max. Marks: 40] [Min. Marks: 16] SECTION - A (Short Answer Questions) [Marks: 2 x 6 = 12 Marks] Instructions to the Candidates: a) Answer any Two of the following questions in about 15 lines each. b) Each question carries Six marks. 1. Discuss the Process of Human Settlement. 2. Describe the impact of British Conquest on Indian Society. 3. Explain the Importance of Government of India Act, 1919. 4. Analyse the Economic Reforms of 1991. SECTION - B (Essay Type Questions) [Marks: 2 x 10 = 20] Instructions to the Candidates: a) Answer any two of the following questions in about 30 lines each. b) Each question carries 10 marks. 5. Write a note on Indian Caste System. 6. Write about the causes and results of the 1857 rebellion. 7. Critically examine the causes for the emergence of Regional Parties. 8. Write a note on Gender Discrimination in India. 254
SECTION - C (Multiple Choice) [Marks: 8 x 1 = 8] Instructions to the Candidates: c) Answer all of the following questions. d) Each question carries One mark. A. Multiple Choice Questions. Choose the correct answer. 1. “Man Makes Himself” written by (a) Gordon Childe.V(b) Leckey (c) A.L. Rouse (d) Lord Action 2. The longest river in the World is (a) Ganga (b) Nile (c) Hoyango Ho (d) Danub 3. “Casta” word derived from (a) Spanish (b) Portuguese (c) Latin (d) Greek 4. The first printed book was brought out in 1456 is (a) The Guntenberg (b) Indica (c) Principles of Quran (d) Gutenberg’s Bible 5. Pitts India Act enacted in the year. (a) 1773 (b) 1784 (c) 1787 (d) 1777 6. Biju Janata Dal (BJD) was founded by (a) Mamata Banerjee (b) Sharad Yadav (c) Naveen Patnaik (d) Mulayam Singh Yadav 7. The Value Added Tax (VAT) was introduced in the Year..... (a) 2005 (b) 2006 (c) 2007 (d) 2004 8. Who fought for human equality in Punjab (a) Mahatma Jyothi Rao Phule (b) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (c) Mangu Ram (d) Iothee Thaas. * * * * * 255
GLOSSARY Adoptation : The process by which man adjusts to a situation. Abstraction : Process of formation of ideas, or quality of things by separating it mentally from any particular material object, Aesthetic : Related to beauty, art. Annihilation : Bringing to nothingness, to destroy or demolish. Anthropologist : A student of or specialist in the study of man in totality, his physical, social and cultural life. Antiquarian : Dealing in antique or rare old objects. Austral opithecinc : A primitive group of early man living in Africa a million years ago. Artifacts : an object made by workmanship of man. Absolutism : despotism, a government in which the ruler has absolute power. Anabaptist : a 16th century Swiss Sect of reformation. Adult Franchise : Right of vote to every adult irrespective of caste, sex, income, religion. Absentee Landlordism : In colonial India the phenomenon of owners of large lands remaining absent from the land living perhaps in cities or towns and drawing on large rents. This rent was usually a huge proportion of the produce of the toiling tiller. Agricultural Indebtedness : The phenomenon of poorer cultivating sectors of agricultural classes being forever in debt to the moneylender. Billet : A wooden club. Bipedal : Two- footed animal. Booty : spoil taken in war. Baptism : rite for admitting a person into Christian faith ( by dipping him into water or sprinkling sacred water over him). Bourgeoisie : the modern capitalist class, owners of the means of production. Bullion : gold or silver considered in mass rather than in value. Burgeoning : something that develops rapidly. Burgher : an inhabitant of a borough, citizen, middle class. Culture : Total way of life, arts, modes of thinking, rules and regulations by which society is run. Cognitive : Knowing ability, related to perception, memory judgement. Conceptualise : To form concept or idea or thought in general. 256
Cosmology : Study of universe as a whole, its systems and structure Cranial : Related to the cranium or skull of the brain. Canoes : Small narrow boats used by tribals in various parts of the world. Connotation : A meaning in addition to the primary meaning of word or sentence. Cloeiation : To form into ice; refers to a geological time when large parts of the earth were covered with glaciers. Chronology : science for computing or arranging units of time. Citadel : fortress on commanding height. Cosmopolitan : one free from local or regional prejudices. Commutation : charges or fee for frecing the serfs from bondage. Capitalism : an economic system of production of commodities for profit. Conservative Party : A political party in Britain which was rightist and dominated by the interest of landlords and merchants. Constructive Work : Programme for upliftment of downtrodden and promoting Hindu-Muslim unity started by Gandhi after the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement. Dialects : Forms of spoken languages peculiar to a region or regions. Diffusion : Dissemination or dispersion or scattering. Demeane : a manor house with land adjacent to it (whose produce went to feudal lord). Deforestation : the phenomenon of decline in total land under forests. Deductive : to infer by logical reasoning. Empathy : To put oneself mentally, in the other persons position. Environment : That which surrounds man. Eg. atmosphere, buildings, trees etc. Evolutionary : Any irreversible process which makes organisms or institutions move forward to a higher stage. Eg. Man has evolved from apes. Extraction : To remove from the main body. Encapsulat : Enclose inside as if in a capsule. Ethics : Study of standards of conduct or moral judgement. Existential : Expressing existence, or based on existence. Estate : landed property. Empiricism : method of proof based on observations. Exploitation : The historical phenomenon of one class living off the surplus produced by another e.g. landlords living off the peasants' 257
produce. Economic Depression : Phenomenon of extreme economic crisis when there is over production and glut. Consequence is unemployment and drastic fall in prices. Equity : A situation with absence of privilege for any particular section of population. Fatalistic : The doctrine that individuals cannot change their destiny. Fiscal : Related to public revenue, taxation etc. Fresco : a method of painting in water - colour on wall before plaster is dry. Fascism : An extreme right wing political ideology which arose as a reaction to communists, social democracts and labour movements in 20th century Italy and Germany. Feudal Levies : Obligations of extra economic nature like that of begar or forced labor. Guild : A community based on occupational specialisation, mainly artisans during the medieval period of Europe. Gothic : a style of architecture of flying buttresses and pointed arches, etc. Guild : a medieval association of merchants or tradesmen organised to protect the interests of its members. Hypothesis : A proposition or statement waiting for test or veritifation; unconfirmed theory. Homo Sapiens : Latin name for a class of things / organisms of the same nature. Heritage : Property that can be inherited, something handed down from one's ancestors. Heterogeneity : Differences based on birth or origin from different sources. Hieroglyph : Pictorial representation of writing, sacred character. Harness : tackle, equipment or gear for draught animals. Heretic : holding belief opposed to the church, especially by its members. Humanism : A system of thought holding man to be ethical, giving dignity to man. Values connected with development of man as a human being. Humanist : Oriented towards the well-being of human being Hegemony : exercise of domination or control. Inferiority : A feeling of inadequancy relative to other people or other groups. 258
Irrational : That which is not logical. Institutionalised : Those norms and rules which have become part and parcel of social process and organisation. Insular : Isolated and safe outside the environment. Improvise : To make or provide or do with whatever is in hand, to provide with out advance preparation. Intrinsic : Inherent, or belonging to the real nature of a thing. Intellectual : A person involved in scholarly pursuits. Inscription : Writing embossed on walls or pillars. Incas : a tribe of India origin in South America. They established a militaristic empire which included Peru, Eurador and Chile. Indebtedness : The phenomenon of money lenders keeping long term hold over sections of rural or urban poor. Input : Investment made for the production of certain goods and services. Journey-men : skilled workers qualified by apprentices to work in his trade. Kulaks : wealthy peasant who employed hired labour. Laity : All the people not belonging to any profession; layment in society. Legitimise : to hold justifiable. Legume : pulses. Labour Party : A political party in Britain distinct from conservaties and communists and argued for advancing labours' interests. Landlordism : The phenomenon of Zamindars of medieval times being converted into permanent landlords under the British permanent settlement. Linguistic Formations : The recognized social formations in India by the nationalists with language as the basic criteria for different identities. Local Self - Government : Local governing body consists of people's representative Manor : a landed estate belonging to noble men. Maxim : Consists of a rule or premise. Mutilate : To damage by removing a part. Monolithic : Huge complex structure of single stone. Mystically : Exploring the inner vision and directions of man’s mind. Metaphysical : Supernatural. Morphological : Related to form and structure of plants, animals societies. Millennium : one thousand years. 259
Mass Mobilisation : Process of bringing mass of people together for a definite political objective. Neolithic : New stone culture, when man lived many centuries ago using stones more sophisticated kind. Nirvana : Final spiritual release from earthly bonds and struggle. Nascent : In the process of birth or not yet mature. National Consciousness : Awareness of belonging to a nation 1) through a process of struggle and sell-realisation, and 2) through education and mobilisation by the nationalist leaders. Nationalism : An ideology which emerged in opposition to colonial domination. secondly it offers itself as a social, political, economic alternative to colonialism. In contrast to Europe where it arose due to the need of a united market it arose as a specific need of Indian people to find an alternative to colonial rule. Non-violence : Basis of Gandhi's philosophy for conducting struggles without hurting the enemy. Over-arching : Across the archs, that which goes across or connects specific or particular features. Ostentation : unnecessary show of wealth, knowledge etc. Output : Production received in the form of goods or services. Paradoxical : That which is self contradictory. Postivism : A system of philosophy and a method of social study that relies entirely on observable facts. Prejudice : A bias against a group/persons regarding their habits and behaviours. Pseudo-science : Fictitious or false science. Palaeolithic : Old stone culture when man used instruments of chipped stones many centuries ago for hunting and cutting. Palaeontology : The science that deals with the life on earth in earlier times as known from the study of fossils. Perennial : Lasting for a long time. Plasticity : Felxibility, impressionability. Pseudo : 'False' or spurious. Paddle wheel : an engine driven wheel for propelling a vessle having a number of horizontal paddle entering the water more or less perpendicularly. Proletariat : the industrial working class. 260
Patriotism : Feeling of loyalty towards one's own nation. Picketing : a Peaceful agitational action to prevent routine work and to express protest. Quantum-leap : An advancemet which is elemental or basic in nature. Quantum : Latin word that refers to amount sufficient at a time. Racism : A doctorine presupposing the superiority of one race over the other. Eg. the Negroes were regarded as inferior to Whites in the USA. Rites of Passage : Rituals related to birth, marriage, death, representing major or stages of life. Renaissance : The great revival of art, literature and social awakening in Europe during 14th and 16th centuries. Retrogress : To move backward or revert to inferior state. Radicalisation : A sharp or slow swing of a movement, thought or idea towards the left. Revolt : A phenomenon of opposition to any kind of domination. Rationalist : One believing in reason. Historically rationalist thought is associated with the beginning of Renaissance. Reformist : One believing in positively modifying or amending society to make it better suited to times. Resources : Collective source of wealth. Specificities : That which deals with specific issues in Social Scienes. Seminaries : Schools, specially private schools and colleges in the past where priests were trained in Europe. Serendipity : Accidental discoveries, chance discoveries. Smelting : Process of extracting metal from the ore. Sheet - flood : flood that spreads out on earth surface. Sacrament : a set of rites observed by Christians as ordained by Jesus. Scholasticism : a system of thought based on Aristotelian logic. Share Cropper : a tenant farmer who pays as rent a share of the crop. Spinning Jenny : an early spinning machine having more than one spindle and enabling a person to make a number of yarns simultaneously. Salt Law : The British law imposing a tax on Indians producing sali. Satyagraha : Struggle against domination and which is based on validity of truth. Socialism : The broad philosophy calling for equal socio-economic redistribution of resources and wealth. 261
Separate Electorates : The British move to divide Hindus and Muslims as separate voting constituents and with right to separate representatives through elections. Sanskritization : A process of following or accumulating the values, life style, norms of the upper castes by lower castes. Taboo : That which must not be done because it contradicts social rules. Technology : The state or science of industrial arts in which complex instruments are used. Transcendental : Abstract and supernatural. Transformative : That which changes the original form. Tenement : A holding whose produce belonged to the serf. Tithe : One - tenth of annual produce from land paid as contribution to Church. Two Nation Theory : The theory which says that historically India was composed of two nations: One Hindu and One Muslim. Universalities : That which deals with wide scale generalisations in Sentences. Uneconomic Holding : Land holding of small size, usually not even producing bare subsistence for the tiller. Validity : The truth being established by facts. Value - Judgement : A judgement based on one’s personal liking. Values : A subjective mental framework to distinguish between good and bad, ought to be or not to be. Verification : Confirmation by experience or by facts. Vagaries : Unaccountable movements, freaksih behaviour or motion. Wasteland : the landed estate of feudal lord that was not cultivated. Yoke : frame of wood joining oxen at the neck. Zamindars : Permanent holders of land in the countryside whose share of revenue was fixed by the British Government. ***** 262
